Skip to main content
NCBI home page
International Journal of Developmental Disabilities logoLink to International Journal of Developmental Disabilities
. 2023 Dec 18;71(5):703–713. doi: 10.1080/20473869.2023.2277601

Sensory processing, emotional and behavioural challenges in children with autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactive disorder

Sonu Darnal 1, Satyananda Panda 2, Namrata 3,✉, Alisha Chettri 4
PMCID: PMC12284981  PMID: 40704168

Abstract

Background

Previous studies have found sensory processing abnormalities, behavioural, and emotional challenges in children with developmental disorders, particularly autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. There is little research on the sensory, emotional, and behavioural differences between individuals with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) across age cohorts.

Aim

This study examined the correlation and differences in sensory processing, emotional, and behavioural challenges in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and typically developing children. This study also examined these characteristics in two age groups: 4–11-year-olds and 12–18-year-olds.

Methodology

The study included 362 mothers of their children among three groups: 123 with ASD, 100 with ADHD, and 139 from the typical population. The Short Sensory Profile (SSP) and Child Behaviour Checklist were administered to participants along with a demographic profile. The participants were between 25–50. Pearson correlation, MANOVA and MANCOVA were used to fulfil research objectives.

Results and discussion

The study found a link between tactile sensitivity, sensation seeking, auditory filtering, and behavioural and emotional issues in children with ASD and ADHD. Sensory features also predicted emotional and behavioural issues in these populations. The MANCOVA analysis showed significant variations in sensory processing, behavioural, and emotional issues among populations, controlling for age groups.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study shows the need for early diagnosis of sensory processing impairments in these groups and developmental-stage-specific therapies. The study highlights the need for longitudinal research to understand sensory processing patterns, emotional, and behavioural issues, and development, particularly in India.

Keywords: sensory processing, behaviour, emotional problems, ASD, ADHD, children

Introduction

Prevalence of sensory processing in children with ASD and ADHD

Previous studies have suggested that children who have neurodevelopmental disabilities exhibit distinct patterns in the processing of sensory information compared to individuals who develop typically (Little et al. 2018). This is particularly evident in the case of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Leekam et al. 2007) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Joshi and Angolkar 2021). ASD and ADHD are prevalent conditions that are typically diagnosed during the early stages of infancy. According to Little et al. (2018), the prevalence of ASD among children reaches 1 in 68 by the age of 8. Similarly, Tengsujaritkul et al. (2020) report that ADHD affects approximately 1 in 11 children aged 4 to 17 years, with a global prevalence rate ranging from 3.4% to 5.3%. According to a study conducted by Juneja and Sairam (2018), it has been determined that around 1 in 125 children within the age range of 3–6 years, and 1 in 85 children within the age range of 6–9 years, receive a diagnosis of ASD. Additionally, research conducted by Joshi and Angolkar (2021) indicates that the prevalence of ADHD among children in India ranges from 2% to 17%.

Sensory processing encompasses the reception, interpretation, and structuring of sensory information received from both the external environment and the internal body, with the goal of generating adaptive responses (Syu et al. 2020). According to Dunn’s theory, there exists variability in sensory processing patterns among individuals, which is determined by their sensory stimulus threshold (ranging from high to low) and their self-regulation, or how they actively or passively respond to such stimuli (Little et al. 2018). The sensory patterns exhibit variability across several sensory modalities, including tactile, olfactory, gustatory, visual, and other systems. Sensory processing challenges can lead to extreme and inappropriate emotional and motor reactions, which can have detrimental effects on an individual’s social engagement, self-worth, occupational pursuits, ability to adapt, and familial relationships (Perez Repetto et al. 2017).

Sensory processing abnormalities have been commonly documented in individuals with ASD and ADHD populations, as seen by studies conducted by Leekam et al. (2007) and Joshi and Angolkar (2021). Specifically, the prevalence of sensory processing abnormalities in children diagnosed with ASD has been reported to range from 45% to 95%, as indicated by research conducted by Perez Repetto et al. (2017). Due to its elevated occurrence in individuals with ASD, sensory processing anomalies have been incorporated into the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (Thye et al. 2018). According to Baker et al. (2008), children diagnosed with ASD have reported facing significant challenges mostly in the domains of taste/smell sensitivity, under-responsiveness/sensation seeking, olfactory perception, auditory filtering, and tactile perception. Previous research has indicated that children diagnosed with ADHD exhibit aberrant sensory processing patterns when compared to their typically developing peers (Ghanizadeh 2011). Specifically, these children demonstrate more pronounced impairments in various sensory domains, including visual, auditory, taste, smell, and tactile processing (Panagiotidi et al. 2020).

Emotional and behavioural challenges in children with ASD and ADHD

The co-occurrence of emotional (internalizing) and behavioural (externalizing) difficulties is commonly observed in individuals with ASD (Syu et al. 2020) and ADHD (Tabasi et al. 2016, Tengsujaritkul et al. 2020). The concept of internalizing behaviour pertains to inward-directed emotional states, encompassing anxiety, despair, and somatic complaints. On the other hand, externalizing behaviour is characterized by outward-directed actions, such as aggression and delinquency (Tengsujaritkul et al. 2020). The frequency of emotional and behavioural issues in children diagnosed with ASD and ADHD has been reported as considerable by researchers in India (Kumari and Jahan 2021, Venkatesh et al. 2012). Moreover, there is a correlation between sensory processing in children diagnosed with ASD and ADHD and their emotional and behavioural functioning, as indicated by studies conducted by Baker et al. (2008) and Tabasi et al. (2016). In a study conducted by Tseng et al. (2011), it was found that children diagnosed with ASD exhibit a significantly elevated likelihood (73.1%) of encountering emotional and behavioural challenges. The study also revealed a significant correlation between externalizing difficulties and sensory processing related to registration and avoidance, as well as internalizing behaviours and sensory seeking, sensitivity, and avoidance. Tabasi et al. (2016) emphasized that a positive correlation exists between sensory processing difficulties and the manifestation of externalizing and internalizing behavioural disorders in children diagnosed with ADHD.

Sensory, emotional and behavioural challenges in ASD and ADHD across age

The frequency of sensory processing issues has been extensively documented across various age groups, yet the study findings pertaining to this topic exhibit a lack of consistency. In a study conducted by Little et al. (2018), it was observed that sensory processing impairments were shown to be less prevalent in older children diagnosed with both ASD and ADHD as compared to their younger counterparts. Nevertheless, it was observed that older children diagnosed with ADHD exhibited heightened challenges in sensory processing, namely in the realm of auditory perception, as compared to their younger counterparts. In contrast, the longitudinal study conducted by Green et al. (2012) did not yield any statistically significant disparities in sensory processing across various stages of development. Nevertheless, according to the meta-analysis conducted by Ben-Sasson et al. (2019), sensory processing atypicalities have been found to exhibit varying patterns of change over time, including increases, decreases, or stability. In a study conducted by Leekam et al. (2007), it was observed that older children diagnosed with ASD exhibited a higher degree of tactile sensitivity in comparison to younger children. Conversely, sensory difficulties related to the visual domain were found to ameliorate with age in children diagnosed with ASD, regardless of their intellectual abilities. In contrast, the symptoms associated with auditory filtering exhibited consistency regardless of age and IQ levels. According to the findings of Talay-Ongan and Wood (2000), there is evidence to suggest that sensory processing anomalies tend to normalize as individuals grow older. However, it should be noted that in the specific study conducted, there was an observed increase in sensory sensitivity with age, particularly in the auditory domain. The studies indicate that there is a possibility for sensory processing to enhance with advancing age. However, it is important to note that a definitive conclusion cannot be derived from these findings alone.

Children with ASD have a higher prevalence of emotional and behavioural difficulties compared to the general population, which has a substantial impact on their academic performance and social interactions (Maskey et al. 2014). Although these challenges persist throughout adolescence and maturity, their prevalence varies. In their study, Hebron and Humphrey (2014) discovered the presence of emotional and behavioural difficulties throughout childhood and adolescence. Specifically, they observed that older children experienced greater challenges in the form of anxiety, despair, and low self-confidence. Contrarily, the study conducted by Hastings et al. (2022) yielded results indicating the absence of a statistically significant distinction in the emotional and behavioural challenges exhibited by children diagnosed with ASD across both primary and secondary school levels. According to a recent longitudinal study conducted by Stern et al. (2020), there exists a correlation between ADHD and many emotional and behavioural challenges, including antisocial personality, substance misuse, and an increased propensity for engaging in criminal activities later in life.

Research in India on ASD and ADHD children

There has been a significant increase in research pertaining to sensory processing and its relationship to emotional and behavioural difficulties. However, it has been observed that there is a lack of such research in developing countries, such as India. Several studies have been undertaken to investigate the phenomenon of sensory processing in the general population (Baidya et al. 2020, Tripathi and Dwivedi 2019). The present analysis highlights two empirical investigations that specifically examine sensory processing in individuals diagnosed with ASD and ADHD (Kumari Sahoo and Senapati 2014, Iyer et al. 2020). Additionally, a separate study is identified that specifically investigates intervention modules designed to address sensory difficulties (Padmanabha et al. 2019). In a recent scoping review, Patra and Kar (2021) undertook an examination of the current body of literature pertaining to ASD within the context of India. Previous investigations have primarily centred on clinical profiles, biomarkers, therapies, social functioning, epidemiological factors, and risk factors. However, the evaluation did not document any studies pertaining to sensory processing in individuals with ASD. According to a recent study conducted by Kumari and Jahan (2021), there was an investigation into the occurrence of emotional and behavioural difficulties among children diagnosed with ADHD. Nevertheless, the study was constrained by a small sample size and a dearth of methodological underpinnings. The authors of a recent scholarly review have observed that although there has been a rise in research pertaining to ADHD within the Indian context over the past twenty years, there remains a scarcity of research of high quality. Kuppili et al. (2017) emphasized the pressing necessity for further research incorporating prospective designs, larger sample sizes, and control groups.

The existing research on sensory processing and its relationship to behavioural and emotional difficulties across various age groups has yielded inconsistent outcomes, leading to equivocal conclusions. Moreover, there is a notable scarcity of studies undertaken on sensory processing within the Indian environment. Hence, the primary objective of this study was to examine the correlation between sensory processing and emotional and behavioural difficulties among children diagnosed with ASD, ADHD, and those representing the usual population. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the variations in sensory processing as well as emotional and behavioural difficulties among different age groups, specifically younger and older children, within the populations diagnosed with ASD, ADHD, and the typically developing population.

Objectives

  1. To understand the relationship between sensory processing and emotional and behavioural challenges in children with ASD, ADHD and the typical population.

  2. To examine the difference in sensory processing and emotional and behavioural issues in Children with ASD, ADHD, and the typical population by controlling the effect of age groups (younger and older).

Hypotheses

  • H1: The different dimensions of sensory processing will significantly correlate with internalizing and externalizing challenges in children with ASD, ADHD, and the typical population.

  • H2: Children with ASD, ADHD, and the typical population will significantly differ in sensory processing and internalizing and externalizing difficulties when controlling for age.

Method

Participants

This study involved the participation of mothers of children diagnosed with ASD, ADHD, and children from the typical population. The study included a sample of 362 mothers, consisting of 123 mothers of children diagnosed with ASD, 100 mothers of children diagnosed with ADHD, and 139 mothers with children in the typical development group. The participants’ mean age ranged between 30 and 35 years. The individuals included in this study were classified into different socioeconomic categories, namely higher lower class, lower middle class, and upper middle class, based on the Kuppuswamy socioeconomic scale (Kumar et al. 2012).

Children with ASD

In the beginning, a total of 187 children were identified as having ASD. A total of 64 individuals exhibiting symptoms of ADHD were identified and subsequently eliminated from the primary dataset. The sample for this study comprised 123 moms, with 73 mothers having younger children aged 6–11 years and 50 mothers having older children aged 12–18 years. All participants had a verified diagnosis of ASD according to the International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10), as determined by a qualified clinical professional. Prior to engaging in the study, the diagnosis of ASD was validated by the utilization of the Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism (ISAA) (Chakraborty et al. 2015), which was administered to the mothers for completion. The presence of comorbid ADHD in children diagnosed with ASD was established through the utilization of Conners’ Abbreviated Parent Questionnaire (Parker et al. 1996). Furthermore, children exhibiting concurrent signs of ADHD were deliberately excluded from participation in the study. According to the account provided by the mother, the children diagnosed with ASD did not exhibit any concurrent diagnosis of ADHD or other neurodevelopmental challenges, this method was also used in the study by Crasta et al. (2020).

Children with ADHD

A total of 137 children were identified as having ADHD. Out of the whole sample, a subset of 37 individuals had symptoms indicative of ASD and were therefore eliminated from the study. Hence, the sample comprised a total of 100 mothers, with 50 mothers having children aged 6–11 years and the remaining 50 mothers having children aged 12–18 years. All participants were diagnosed with ADHD according to the International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10), by a qualified psychological professional. Prior to engaging in the study, the diagnosis of ADHD was validated through the utilization of the Conners’ Abbreviated Parent Questionnaire (Parker et al. 1996). The study conducted by Chakraborty et al. (2015) utilized the Interactive Screening and Autism Spectrum Disorder Algorithm (ISAA) to validate the presence of comorbidity in individuals with ASD. The assessment was administered by the mothers of the participants. The data set did not include children exhibiting indications of ASD. According to the account provided by the mother, the children diagnosed with ADHD did not exhibit any further diagnoses of ASD or other neurodevelopmental abnormalities (Crasta et al. 2020).

Typical group

In addition, a sample of 139 mothers was selected to serve as the control group. This group consisted of 74 mothers with children aged 6–11 years and 65 mothers with children aged 12–18 years. These mothers were recruited from a mainstream school and were confirmed to have no known physical, neurological, or behavioural disorders. Furthermore, they did not receive any form of therapy, as reported by their mothers. The control group was carefully matched with the other clinical groups based on age. Furthermore, the researchers employed the ISAA and Conners’ Abbreviated Parent Questionnaire as systematic tools for the purpose of screening for ASD and ADHD, respectively. None of the participants in this study met the clinical thresholds as determined by the measures used.

Inclusion criteria

  1. Mothers of children with ASD and ADHD were included in the study.

  2. Mothers who were literate were included.

  3. Participants belonged to the upper lower class, lower middle class, and upper middle class.

Measures

Short Sensory Profile (SSP) (Dunn 1999): The Short Sensory Profile (SSP), developed by Dunn in 1999, is a tool used to assess sensory processing patterns in individuals. To evaluate sensory processing, the researchers employed the Sensory Profile Short Form (SSP), which is a condensed version of the original Sensory Profile assessment tool. The assessment comprises a total of 38 items and is designed to quantify the occurrence of sensory behaviours in individuals within the age range of 2 to 15 years. The caregivers complete the SSP using a Likert scale consisting of five points, with 5 representing ‘never’, 4 representing ‘frequently’, 3 representing ‘occasionally’, 2 representing ‘seldom’, and 1 representing ‘always’. The range of the total score is from 38 to 190. A higher score on the scale is indicative of lower levels of sensory impairments, while a lower score suggests higher levels of sensory processing difficulties.

The scale encompasses seven domains, one of which is tactile sensitivity. This domain encompasses items that pertain to behavioural discomfort resulting from physical contact, such as exhibiting aggressive reactions, rubbing, or scratching the affected area when touched. The measurement instrument consists of a seven-item scale, with scores ranging from 7 to 35. The concept of taste and smell encompasses factors associated with the perception and evaluation of specific tastes and olfactory, such as the avoidance or preference of certain foods or the olfactory qualities of food. The dimension comprises four distinct elements, with scores ranging from 4 to 20. Movement sensitivity encompasses factors associated with the apprehension of experiencing a fall or the act of the feet detaching from the supporting surface. The set comprises three distinct elements, with a scoring range spanning from three to fifteen. The construct of responsiveness/sensation seeking encompasses behaviours such as the active pursuit of or engagement in making improper noises, as well as the act of touching both individuals and inanimate objects.

The assessment comprises a total of seven elements, with scores ranging from seven to thirty-five. The concept of auditory filtering refers to the challenge of effectively directing attention towards pertinent information while simultaneously disregarding extraneous distractions. The aforementioned factors encompass abstaining from reacting to derogatory remarks and experiencing challenges in effectively operating in environments characterized by high levels of auditory stimulation. The dimension consists of six items, with scores ranging from six to thirty. The term ‘low energy’ pertains to the observable physical manifestations of abnormal sensory processing, characterized by diminished grip strength and muscle tone, as well as a tendency to fatigue quickly. The dataset consists of six items, each assigned a score ranging from 6 to 30. Visual and auditory sensitivity refers to a maladaptive reaction towards visual and auditory stimuli. The dataset consists of five items, each assigned a score ranging from 5 to 20. A child’s below-average score across all aspects suggests that their behavioural sensory functioning deviates from the normative level. The present study found that the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for the SSP was 0.86.

The Conners’ Abbreviated Parent or Teacher Questionnaire, developed by Parker et al. (1996), consists of a 10-item questionnaire. The scale is employed for individuals within the age range of 6 to 18 years. The items pertain to manifestations of hyperactivity and inattention in children, including restlessness, overactivity, inattentiveness, distractibility, excitability, impulsivity, and pronounced mood fluctuations. The questionnaire employs a scoring system ranging from 1 to 3, where a score of 1 represents a minimal level, a score of 2 signifies a substantial level, and a score of 3 denotes a significant level. The upper limit of the scale is 30, with a threshold of 15 or higher indicating the presence of ADHD symptoms.

The researchers employed the Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism (ISAA) (ISSA, 2009) to evaluate the manifestations of ASD within the population diagnosed with ADHD. The scale is employed for assessing individuals between the age range of 3 to 20 years, specifically focusing on youngsters. The assessment comprises a total of 40 items and employs a five-point Likert scale for scoring. The scale ranges from 1 to 5, with 1 representing the category of ‘rarely’ (indicating symptoms encompassing up to 20% of the time), 2 representing ‘sometimes’ (encompassing symptoms between 21% and 40% of the time), 3 representing ‘frequently’ (encompassing symptoms between 41% and 60% of the time), 4 representing ‘mostly’ (encompassing symptoms between 61% and 80% of the time), and 5 representing ‘always’ (encompassing symptoms between 81% and 100% of the time). The ISAA framework encompasses six distinct aspects, which include social relationship and reciprocity, emotional responsiveness, speech-language and communication, behavioural patterns, sensory aspect, and cognitive component. The scoring scale encompassed a range of 40 to 200, with scores below 70 indicating an absence of ASD symptoms. Scores falling between 70 and 106 were indicative of mild autism, while scores ranging from 107 to 153 denoted moderate autism. Scores over 153 were associated with severe autism.

The Kuppuswamy socioeconomic scale, as described by Kumar et al. (2012), is frequently employed in research conducted in India. This scale encompasses three key domains: education, occupation, and income. The scale encompasses three domains: educational attainment, occupational status, and monthly family income in rupees (based on the August 2016 current price index for industrial workers). The scoring scale spans from 1 to 29. The individuals who obtain scores ranging from 26 to 29 can be categorized as belonging to the upper class. Those who score between 16 and 25 are classified as upper middle class, while scores falling between 11 and 15 indicate membership in the lower middle class. Individuals scoring between 5 and 10 are considered part of the upper lower class, whilst scores below 5 are indicative of belonging to the lower class.

Procedure

The current investigation received approval from the Ethical Committee of Sikkim University, located in Gangtok, India. The study’s purpose and objectives were elucidated to the head of the institutes. The study involved the participation of mothers whose children were diagnosed with ASD, ADHD, or were typically developing. Prior to their involvement, the mothers provided their informed consent. Data was gathered from mainstream schools to represent generally developing children, while data from rehabilitation institutions was obtained to represent children with ASD and ADHD. The researcher individually obtained data from individual mothers in order to ensure the absence of any missing information. The mothers who took part in the study supplied data regarding their demographic characteristics, as well as completed the SPP and CBCL questionnaires. No financial compensation was provided to the participants for their involvement in the study.

Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS version 23, a software application commonly employed in social science research for statistical purposes. In addition to the utilization of descriptive statistics, the Pearson correlation coefficient was employed to examine the association between sensory processing and emotional and behavioural difficulties. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to investigate the disparities in sensory processing, emotional functioning, and behavioural difficulties among individuals with ASD, ADHD, and the general population. Additionally, a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed, with age being included as a covariate.

Results

This section presents the findings derived from descriptive analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, MANOVA and MANCOVA analysis. Table 1 presents the average values and standard deviations observed among various demographics and age cohorts. In relation to the dimensions of movement sensitivity, under responsiveness, and auditory filtering, it was observed that older children (mean age = 10.60, mean age = 20.74, mean age = 20.58, respectively) diagnosed with ADHD obtained low scores, suggesting a higher prevalence of difficulties in these areas.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics across populations and age groups.

  ASD
 ADHD
Mean (SD)
 Typical population
Mean (SD)
Short Sensory Profile (SSP) Younger
Mean (SD)		 Older
Mean (SD)		 Younger
Mean (SD)		 Older
Mean (SD)		 Younger
Mean (SD)		 Older
Mean (SD)
Tactile sensitivity 29.55 (3.18) 28.26 (4.58) 28.99 (4.03) 29.14 (5.31) 31.05 (3.73) 29.24 (5.17)
Taste and smell 15.01 (3.57) 13.40 (3.91) 14.42 (4.41) 13.56 (4.56) 14.92 (3.80) 14.78 (3.36)
Move Sensitivity 12.22 (3.17) 11.00 (3.25) 12.50 (3.10) 10.60 (3.31) 10.89 (3.22) 11.73 (2.88)
Underesponsiveness 22.30 (4.69) 22.18 (5.88) 21.04 (5.17) 20.74 (4.23) 23.83 (5.22) 28.12 (4.65)
Auditory filtering 21.25 (3.32) 21.12 (3.80) 20.96 (4.11) 20.58 (4.11) 22.23 (3.16) 22.82 (4.71)
Low energy 23.69 (5.12) 20.78 (5.12) 24.46 (3.85) 22.10 (4.76) 24.45 (4.28) 23.22 (4.28)
Audio and Visual sensitivity 19.45 (3.76) 17.54 (3.47) 18.50 (3.23) 18.92 (3.59) 19.28 (4.11) 19.15 (3.83)
Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL)            
Internalizing 40.79 (3.14) 41.92 (3.82) 40.94 (4.88) 42.42 (6.55) 40.34 (5.98) 45.34 (7.84)
Externalizing 44.25 (4.62) 46.64 (6.05) 46.22 (5.08) 46.54 (6.67) 41.13 (4.22) 41.64 (5.55)
Open in a new tab

Mean and SD are used in this table.

The older children with ASD reported lower scores, indicating higher difficulties in the dimensions of tactile sensitivity (mean= 28.26), taste and smell (mean= 13.40), low energy (mean= 20.78), auditory and visual sensitivity (mean= 17.54), and externalizing behavioural difficulties (mean= 46.64).

Table 2 shows the correlation between sensory processing and emotional and behavioural challenges across three groups (ASD, ADHD and typical population). It was found that in children with ASD, the internalizing difficulties significantly correlated only with auditory filtering (−0.26**) sig at 0.01 level. On the other hand, a significant correlation was found between externalizing behaviour challenges and tactile sensitivity (−0.33**), underresponsive/sensation seeking (−0.26**), auditory filtering (−0.39**) and total scores of SSP (−0.36**) sig at 0.01 level. A decrease in auditory filtering, tactile sensitivity, and underresponsive/sensation-seeking scores indicated an increase in internalizing and externalizing difficulties in children with ASD.

Table 2.

Relationship between sensory processing and emotion and behaviour.

Children with ASD N Mean SD TS TnSS MS UR AF LE VnAS TSenPro Internalizing
Internalizing Pearson Correlation 123 41.25 3.46 −.14 −.06 .01 .08 −.26** −.13 −.04 −.12 1
Externalizing Pearson Correlation 123 45.22 5.36 −.33** −.17 −.07 −.26** −.39** −.17 −.14 −.36** .26**
Children with ADHD                        
Internalizing Pearson Correlation 100 41.68 5.80 −.49** −.42** −.39** −.16 −.36** −.51** −.46** −.60** 1
Externalizing Pearson Correlation 100 46.38 5.85 −.17 −.18 −.09 −.33** −.37** −.33** −.03 −.34** .20*
Typically developing Children                        
Internalizing Pearson Correlation 139 43.05 7.42 −.37** −.19* −.14 −.03 −.10 −.33** −.44** −.34** 1
Externalizing Pearson Correlation 139 41.38 4.95 −.13 −.12 −.04 −.40** −.36** −.25** −.39** −.37** .49**
Open in a new tab
**

Correlation is significant at 0.01 level.

*

Correlation is significant at 0.05 level.

TS = tactile sensitivity, TnSS = taste and smell sensitive, MS = movement sensitivity, US = underresponsive/sensation seeking, AF = auditory filtering, LE = low energy, VnAS = visual and auditory sensitivity, TSenPro = Total sensory processing.

In children with ADHD, a significant negative correlation was found between internalizing difficulties with all the domains of SSP sig at 0.01 level, except for underresponsive/sensation seeking, whereas the externalizing behaviour difficulties significantly correlated with underresponsive/sensation seeking (−0.33**), auditory filtering (−0.37**), and low energy (−0.33**). A decrease in tactile sensitivity (−0.49**), taste and smell sensitivity (−0.42**), movement sensitivity (−0.39**), auditory filtering (−0.36**), low energy (−0.51**) and visual and auditory sensitivity (−0.46**) scores indicated a significant increase in internalizing difficulties in children with ADHD (Table 3).

Table 3.

Group differences and follow-up comparisons on sensory processing and emotion and behaviour problems.

  ASD
 ADHD
 TP
 F-ratio p Ƞ 2
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Tactile sensitivity 29.02 3.84 29.06 4.69 30.09 4.62 2.43 .090 .013
Taste and smell 14.36 3.78 13.99 4.48 14.84 3.56 1.43 .24 .008
Movement sensitivity 11.72 3.25 11.55 3.33 11.34 3.06 .48 .62 .003
Underesponsiveness 22.25 5.18 20.89 4.70 26.12 5.36 34.59
TP>ASD, ADHD 		p<.001 .162
Auditory filtering 21.20 3.51 20.77 4.09 22.55 4.05 7.06
TP>ASD, ADHD 		p<.001 .38
Low energy 22.50 5.30 23.28 4.47 23.78 4.15 2.46 .09 .014
Audio and Visual sensitivity 18.67 3.75 18.71 3.40 19.21 3.86 .84 .435 .005
Internalizing 41.25 3.46 41.68 5.80 43.02 7.44 3.35
TP>ASD, ADHD 		p<.05 .018
Externalizing 45.22 5.36 46.38 5.85 41.40 4.96 29.74
ADHD>ASD, TP 		p<.001 .147
Open in a new tab

Notes. ASD, autism spectrum disorder. ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. TP, typical population. Group differences were analyzed with MANOVA and follow-up comparisons with Bonferonni corrections.

∗∗

p < 0.001.

Results from MANOVA showed ASD, ADHD and the typical population differed in the dimensions of underresponsive and auditory filtering of sensory processing and emotional and behavioural challenges (Pillai’s Trace= 0.279, F [18,704] = 6.350, p < 0.000). The follow-up comparison showed significant group differences in the dimensions of underresponsive/sensation seeking (p< 0.000), auditory filtering (p < 0.001), internalizing (p< 0.04) and externalizing (p < 0.000). In the dimension of underresponsive/sensation seeking, the typical population significantly differed (M = 26.12, SD= 5.36) from the ASD (M = 22.25, SD= 5.18) and ADHD (M = 20.89, SD= 4.70). The typical population significantly differed in the dimension of auditory filtering (M = 22.55, SD= 4.05) from ASD (M = 21.20, SD= 3.51) and ADHD (M = 20.77, SD= 4.09). The typical population significantly differed in externalizing difficulties (M = 41.38, SD= 4.95) from ASD (M = 45.22, SD= 5.36) and ADHD (M = 46.38, SD= 5.85). There was no significant difference found between ASD and ADHD groups with respect to underresponsive and auditory filtering dimensions of sensory processing and emotional and behavioural difficulties (Table 4).

Table 4.

Means, standard deviations and MANCOVA statistics for study variables

Measure ASD
 ADHD
 TP
 F (1,360) ηp2
  M SD M SD M SD
UR/SS 22.25 5.18 20.89 4.70 26.12 5.36 8.21* .022
Auditory 8.04 2.61 8.60 3.07 10.81 2.76 7.08* .019
Emotional 41.25 3.46 41.68 5.80 43.05 7.42 19.60** .052
Behavioural 45.22 5.36 46.38 5.85 41.38 4.95 3.78* .010
Open in a new tab

ASD, autism spectrum disorder. ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. TP, typical population. UR/SS, Underesponsiveness/sensory sensitivity.

With age as a covariate, a significant difference was found in underresponsive/sensory seeking (F = 8.21, ηp2= 0.022), auditory filtering (F = 7.08, ηp2 = 0.019) and behavioural difficulties (F = 3.78, ηp2= 0.010), except for internalizing challenges (F = 19.60, ηp2= 0.052), meaning, age played a significant role in the experience of internalizing difficulties in the three groups.

Discussion

The primary objective of this study was to examine the correlation between sensory characteristics and emotional and behavioural difficulties in individuals with ASD, ADHD, and the typical population. The study also sought to investigate the variations in sensory processing, as well as behavioural and emotional difficulties, among different populations (ASD, ADHD, and typical populations) and age categories (younger and older). As postulated, the findings from the correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant association between sensory processing characteristics and behavioural and emotional difficulties in children diagnosed with ASD and ADHD. Sensory abnormalities, specifically auditory filtering (−0.39), tactile sensitivity (−0.33), and underresponsive/sensation seeking (−0.26), exhibited a significant negative correlation with behavioural challenges at a significance level of 0.01. Furthermore, auditory filtering (−0.26) alone demonstrated a significant negative correlation with emotional difficulties in children diagnosed with ASD.

In a recent study conducted by Fernandez-Prieto et al. (2021), a robust correlation was seen between taste and smell sensitivity, auditory filtering, under responsiveness/sensation seeking, poor energy, and emotional and behavioural difficulties. Previous research has documented those individuals diagnosed with ASD frequently have a diminished capacity to tolerate loud auditory stimuli and encounter challenges in discerning between different sounds (DePape et al. 2012). The experience of encountering sounds that are not perceived as threatening by the general population can elicit abnormal responses, including actions such as covering the ears with hands, emitting high-pitched unrelated noises, or displaying intense dissatisfaction or disgust towards certain sounds, particularly those that are loud. Moreover, a diminished capacity to withstand environmental stimuli can have an impact on an individual’s emotional welfare, disrupt their sleep patterns, impede their ability to concentrate, and potentially induce feelings of worry (Danesh et al. 2021).

According to Espenhahn et al. (2023), individuals with tactile sensitivity experience difficulties in their daily activities, such as wearing garments with varying textures or engaging in grooming practices. According to Balasco et al. (2019), there is a correlation between challenges in tactile processing and the presence of repeated behaviours and deficits in social functioning. A study was undertaken by Rogers et al. (2003) that focused on a cohort of individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism, fragile X syndrome, and developmental disabilities of mixed etiology, as well as a control group of generally developing youngsters. The findings of the study indicate that toddlers diagnosed with ASD exhibited more challenges in sensory processing, particularly in relation to auditory and tactile sensitivity, as compared to both children with developmental delay and a control group. Moreover, there was a correlation between sensory impairments and difficulties in adaptive behaviour. In their study, Liss et al. (2006) employed the Sensory Profile and Vinland Adaptive Behavioural Scale as assessment tools. The researchers discovered a noteworthy correlation between sensory-seeking tendencies and adaptive behaviour in daily living. The additional examination has revealed that auditory, underresponsive/sensation-seeking, and tactile characteristics possess predictive value in relation to emotional and behavioural difficulties observed in children diagnosed with ASD.

Children diagnosed with ADHD frequently express challenges related to their emotional and behavioural functioning. Limited research has been conducted on the topic of sensory processing in children diagnosed with ADHD. Puts et al. (2014) observed that children diagnosed with ADHD exhibited modified tactile responses in comparison to children who were usually developing. According to the findings, children diagnosed with ADHD exhibit a higher prevalence of tactile defensiveness in comparison to their peers. The modified tactile sensitivity has a significant impact on the emotional and daily functioning of individuals within this community. This impact manifests through heightened responses to minor wounds, a lack of awareness of the cleanliness of their hands or face, a diminished ability to perceive touch unless it is forceful, and a general aversion to grooming activities (Ghanizadeh 2011). According to the findings of Karsz et al. (2008), children diagnosed with ADHD had lower olfactory detection abilities in comparison to their typically developing peers. Moreover, as stated by Ghanizadeh (2010), there exists a correlation between olfactory-related behaviour and anxiety as well as oppositional behaviour within this demographic.

According to Ghanizadeh (2011), there is evidence to suggest that typically developing youngsters exhibit superior auditory processing abilities in comparison to children diagnosed with ADHD. Based on a recent comparative study examining children diagnosed with ADHD in comparison to a typically developing population, notable findings emerged indicating that children with ADHD exhibited deficits in temporal processing, auditory attention, and auditory discriminating abilities. The research findings additionally emphasized that the administration of methylphenidate (MPH) over a period of 3–6 months resulted in enhanced auditory processing abilities comparable to those observed in children without ADHD (Lanzetta-Valdo et al. 2017). Challenges in auditory processing can impede a child’s ability to discriminate auditory stimuli, concentrate, remember information, follow instructions, and perform reading and spelling tasks (Dawes et al. 2008).

The results of the multivariate analysis of variance indicate substantial differences among the three groups in the dimensions of sensation-seeking/underresponsive and auditory filtering. Children diagnosed with ADHD exhibited higher levels of sensation-seeking/under responsiveness difficulties (mean = 20.89, SD = 4.70) and auditory filtering difficulties (mean = 20.77, SD = 4.09). Following this, children diagnosed with ASD displayed slightly lower levels of sensation-seeking/under responsiveness difficulties (mean = 22.25, SD = 5.18) and auditory filtering difficulties (mean = 21.20, SD = 3.51). In comparison, the typical population exhibited even lower levels of sensation-seeking/under responsiveness difficulties (mean = 26.12, SD = 5.36) and auditory filtering difficulties (mean = 22.55, SD = 4.05). Previous research has indicated that there is a significant augmentation in auditory processing among children diagnosed with ADHD as demonstrated by earlier studies conducted by Little et al. (2018) and Leekam et al. (2007). The study conducted by Panagiotidi et al. (2020) revealed a statistically significant correlation between sensory sensitivity and features associated with ADHD, hence providing more support for the current research findings. Furthermore, Kern (2002) documented those individuals with ASD exhibit greater difficulties in terms of under responsiveness and auditory filtering when compared to the control group. It is suggested that the under responsiveness observed in individuals with ASD may be attributed to the suppression of sensory inputs in the cerebellum.

The findings have provided more evidence that the three groups had statistically significant variations in behavioural disorders, regardless of any disparities in age. The study revealed that children diagnosed with ADHD had significantly higher levels of externalizing behaviour issues (mean = 46.38, SD = 5.85) in comparison to children diagnosed with ASD (mean = 45.22, SD = 5.36) and those from the usual population (mean = 41.40, SD = 4.96). This disparity may be attributed to the presence of ADHD symptoms. The presence of modified emotional and behavioural experiences is frequently observed in individuals with ADHD, and these alterations may have a distinct impact on their functional abilities, separate from other factors (Hirsch et al. 2019). The presence of dysregulated sensory patterns and difficulties in behaviour control and management among children diagnosed with ADHD can result in the manifestation of emotional symptoms, including but not limited to reduced tolerance for disappointments, impatience, irritation, wrath, and intense emotional reactions (Shimizu et al. 2014).

The occurrence of emotional and behavioural difficulties in children diagnosed with ASD has been extensively documented, with a reported incidence rate ranging from 40% to 50% (Hastings et al. 2022). The analysis of descriptive statistics has revealed that older children diagnosed with ASD and ADHD exhibit a greater prevalence of sensory difficulties in comparison to their younger counterparts. Previous longitudinal studies have documented those sensory difficulties, which were identified during early childhood (specifically, between the ages of 3 and 4), persisted and were constant until the ages of 8 and 9, but afterwards decreased (Green et al. 2012). Leekam et al. (2007) presented findings that demonstrated varied outcomes regarding the continuation of sensory abnormalities during adolescence and maturity in individuals with ASD. Conversely, in certain cases, the sensory symptoms exhibited changes over time in conjunction with age and intelligence quotient (IQ). Moreover, the latest meta-analysis conducted by Ben-Sasson et al. (2019) examined a total of 55 empirical investigations and arrived at the conclusion that sensory processing has the potential to exhibit an increase, decline, or remain steady across the entire lifespan. Moreover, it was determined that age exerted a notable influence on the manifestation of internalizing/emotional difficulties within three distinct cohorts. The study revealed that the older cohort of children diagnosed with ADHD exhibited a higher prevalence of emotional difficulties in comparison to their younger counterparts. According to Hirsch et al. (2019), children diagnosed with ADHD experience detrimental psychological and psychosocial consequences as a result of impaired emotional regulation. In addition, the analysis of descriptive statistics revealed that older children exhibited elevated scores in emotional difficulties. The obtained results were consistent with the most recent research findings reported by Hastings et al. (2022).

Limitations

The current investigation specifically focused on mothers of children diagnosed with ASD, ADHD, and those from the typical population. However, it is important to note that there is a dearth of information regarding the sensory interpretation of fathers in this study. In future research endeavours, it may be advantageous to incorporate direct behavioural assessment with parent accounts. The current investigation adopts a cross-sectional design, which implies that the conclusions drawn on age group disparities are subject to certain limitations. Notwithstanding the constraints, the findings of the current investigation substantiate the enduring presence of sensory processing irregularities in individuals with ASD and ADHD, as well as their capacity to undergo modifications during different stages of development. The results of our study indicate the need to monitor and evaluate the progression of emotional and behavioural difficulties in children diagnosed with ASD, ADHD, and those who fall within the usual population. It is imperative to strategically design therapies that address sensory impairments, emotional and behavioural challenges, as well as symptoms associated with ASD and ADHD in children across various age groups. In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the variations in sensory patterns and the emergence of behavioural and emotional difficulties across the course of childhood and adolescence, it is imperative to undertake longitudinal studies. The primary objective of this study was to examine the correlation between sensory processing and emotional and behavioural difficulties. Consequently, certain variables that could potentially impact emotional and behavioural difficulties, such as treatment plans, the child’s IQ, and cognitive functioning, were not incorporated into the study. Future research endeavours can be undertaken with the aim of regulating the aforementioned variables, particularly within the Indian setting. Moreover, future research endeavours could be undertaken to examine variations in sensory processing, emotional disturbances, and behavioural issues in relation to gender disparities and the extent of the disease.

Conclusion

Individuals diagnosed with ASD and ADHD exhibit sensory characteristics that impact their emotional and behavioural functioning. Nevertheless, the existing scientific literature provides limited insights into the evolutionary trajectory and developmental progression of sensory characteristics in children diagnosed with ASD and ADHD during different phases of development. The findings of the current cross-sectional study indicate that there are variations in sensory processing, as well as behavioural and emotional difficulties, among individuals with ASD and ADHD across different populations and age cohorts. A robust association was seen between sensory processing and both behavioural and emotional difficulties across the three groups. Moreover, a notable disparity was observed in the domains of under responsiveness/sensation seeking, auditory filtering, and emotional and behavioural issues, regardless of age. Furthermore, there were notable variations in the internalization of behaviours among different population and age cohorts.

The current study provides further evidence in line with previous research findings that sensory processing characteristics are identified at an early stage of development and continue to manifest throughout adolescence and adulthood, resulting in detrimental effects on individuals’ behavioural and emotional well-being. The current study’s findings contribute to the limited body of literature on the prevalence of sensory processing abnormalities and their association with emotional and behavioural difficulties across various age cohorts, particularly within the Indian context. Hence, it is crucial to promptly identify and address sensory processing issues, as well as behavioural and emotional difficulties, in order to effectively allocate suitable resources and develop appropriate treatment strategies.

Authors’ contribution

SD and N were involved in the conception of the work. SD was involved in data acquisition, analysis, interpretation, and preparation of the first draft of the paper. Part of the data was analyzed and interpreted by AC. N and SP designed, planned, and guided the study. N, SP and AC provided a critical review of the manuscript for intellectual content. The final manuscript was approved by all the authors.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding

None.

Data availability Statement

Data is not publicly available due to confidential reasons of research participants.

References

  1. Achenbach, T. M. 1991. Manual for the child behavior checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. [Google Scholar]
  2. Baidya, S., Noronha, T., Anisha, A. and Katakia, H.. 2020. Prevalence of sensory processing disorder among school going children in North Eastern India. International Journal of Science and Research, 9. [Google Scholar]
  3. Baker, A. E., Lane, A., Angley, M. T. and Young, R. L.. 2008. The relationship between sensory processing patterns and behavioural responsiveness in autistic disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 867–875. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Balasco, L., Provenzano, G. and Bozzi, Y.. 2019. Sensory abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders: A focus on the tactile domain, from genetic mouse models to the clinic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 1016. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Ben-Sasson, A., Gal, E., Fluss, R., Katz-Zetler, N. and Cermak, S.A.. 2019. Update of a meta-analysis of sensory symptoms in ASD: A new decade of research. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49, 4974–4996. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chakraborty, S., Thomas, P., Bhatia, T., Nimgaonkar, V. L. and Deshpande, S. N.. 2015. Assessment of severity of autism using the Indian scale for assessment of autism. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 37, 169–174. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Crasta, J. E., Salzinger, E., Lin, M., Gavin, W. J. and Davies, P. L.. 2020. Sensory processing and attention profiles among children with sensory processing disorders and autism spectrum disorders. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 14. 22. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Danesh, A. A., Howery, S., Aazh, H., Kaf, W. and Eshraghi, A. A.. 2021. Hyperacusis in autism spectrum disorders. Audiology Research, 11, 547–556. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Dawes, P., Bishop, D. V., Sirimanna, T. and Bamiou, D. E.. 2008. Profile and aetiology of children diagnosed with auditory processing disorder (APD). International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 72, 483–489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. DePape, A. M. R., Hall, G. B., Tillmann, B. and Trainor, L. J.. 2012. Auditory processing in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. PLoS One, 7, e44084. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Dunn, W. 1999. Sensory profile: User’s manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation. [Google Scholar]
  12. Espenhahn, S., Godfrey, K. J., Kaur, S., McMorris, C., Murias, K., Tommerdahl, M., Bray, S. and Harris, A. D.. 2023. Atypical tactile perception in early childhood autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53, 2891–2904. doi: 10.1007/s10803-022-05570-7 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Fernandez-Prieto, M., Moreira, C., Cruz, S., Campos, V., Martinez-Regueiro, R., Taboada, M., Carracedo, A. and Sampaio, A.. 2021. Executive functioning: A mediator between sensory processing and behaviour in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 2091–2103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ghanizadeh, A. 2010. The predictors of parent reported behaviors related to olfactory information processing in children with ADHD. Psychiatry Investigation, 7, 116–121. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Ghanizadeh, A. 2011. Sensory processing problems in children with ADHD, a systematic review. Psychiatry Investigation, 8, 89–94. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Green, S. A., Ben-Sasson, A., Soto, T. W. and Carter, A. S.. 2012. Anxiety and sensory over-responsivity in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: Bidirectional effects across time. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1112–1119. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Hastings, S. E., Hastings, R. P., Swales, M. A. and Hughes, J. C.. 2022. Emotional and behavioural problems of children with autism spectrum disorder attending mainstream schools. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 68, 633–640. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hebron, J. and Humphrey, N.. 2014. Mental health difficulties among young people on the autistic spectrum in mainstream secondary schools: A comparative study. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 14, 22–32. [Google Scholar]
  19. Hirsch, O., Chavanon, M. L. and Christiansen, H.. 2019. Emotional dysregulation subgroups in patients with adult ADHD: A cluster analytic approach. Scientific Reports, 9, 5639. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. ISAA. 2009. Report on assessment tool for autism: Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism. New Delhi: Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment: Government of India. [Google Scholar]
  21. Iyer, P. R., Chavan, S. R. and Rege, S.. 2020. Sensory processing and organisational abilities in children with inattentive-hyperactive behaviours. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 27, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
  22. Joshi, H. M. and Angolkar, M.. 2021. Prevalence of ADHD in primary school children in Belagavi City, India. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25, 154–160. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Juneja, M. and Sairam, S.. 2018. Autism spectrum disorder – An Indian perspective. SMGroup. <https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Gr-upSM-Autism-Spectrum-Disorder-An-Indian-Juneja-Sairam/a54fa7246403e5bd9433a2fdd47e5728874480c4>
  24. Karsz, F. R., Vance, A., Anderson, V. A., Brann, P. G., Wood, S. J., Pantelis, C. and Brewer, W. J.. 2008. Olfactory impairments in child attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 1462–1468. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Kern, J. K. 2002. The possible role of the cerebellum in autism/PDD: Disruption of a multisensory feedback loop. Medical Hypotheses, 59, 255–260. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Kumar, N., Gupta, N,. and Kishore, J.. 2012. Kuppuswamy’s socioeconomic scale: Updating income ranges for the year 2012. Indian Journal of Public Health, 56, 103–104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Kumari Sahoo, S. and Senapati, A.. 2014. Effect of sensory diet through outdoor play on functional behaviour in children with ADHD. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, 46, 49–54. [Google Scholar]
  28. Kumari, R. and Jahan, M.. 2021. Emotional and behavioural problems in school going children with ADHD. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 9, 572–579. [Google Scholar]
  29. Kuppili, P. P., Manohar, H., Pattanayak, R. D., Sagar, R., Bharadwaj, B. and Kandasamy, P.. 2017. ADHD research in India: A narrative review. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 11–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Lanzetta-Valdo, B. P., Oliveira, G. A. D., Ferreira, J. T. C. and Palacios, E. M. N.. 2017. Auditory processing assessment in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An open study examining methylphenidate effects. International Archives of Otorhinolaryngology, 21, 72–78. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Leekam, S. R., Nieto, C., Libby, S. J., Wing, L. and Gould, J.. 2007. Describing the sensory abnormalities of children and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 894–910. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Liss, M., Saulnier, C., Fein, D. and Kinsbourne, M.. 2006. Sensory and attention abnormalities in autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 10, 155–172. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Little, L. M., Dean, E., Tomchek, S. and Dunn, W.. 2018. Sensory processing patterns in autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and typical development. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 38, 243–254. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Maskey, M., Lowry, J., Rodgers, J., McConachie, H., and Parr, J.R.. 2014. Reducing Specific Phobia/Fear in Young People with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) through a Virtual Reality Environment Intervention. Plos One, 9, 1–12. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Padmanabha, H., Singhi, P., Sahu, J. K. and Malhi, P.. 2019. Home-based sensory interventions in children with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 86, 18–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Panagiotidi, M., Overton, P. G. and Stafford, T.. 2020. The relationship between sensory processing sensitivity and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder traits: A spectrum approach. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113477. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Parker, J. D. A., Sitarenios, G. and Conners, C. K.. 1996. Abbreviated conners’ rating scales revisited: A confirmatory factor analytic study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1, 55–62. [Google Scholar]
  38. Patra, S. and Kar, S. K.. 2021. Autism spectrum disorder in India: A scoping review. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon, England), 33, 81–112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Perez Repetto, L., Jasmin, E., Fombonne, E., Gisel, E. and Couture, M.. 2017. Longitudinal study of sensory features in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research and Treatment, 2017, 1934701–1934708. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Puts, N. A., Wodka, E. L., Tommerdahl, M., Mostofsky, S. H. and Edden, R. A.. 2014. Impaired tactile processing in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Neurophysiology, 111, 1803–1811. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S. and Wehner, E.. 2003. Parent reports of sensory symptoms in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 631–642. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Shimizu, V. T., Bueno, O. F. and Miranda, M. C.. 2014. Sensory processing abilities of children with ADHD. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy, 18, 343–352. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Stern, A., Agnew‐Blais, J., Danese, A., Fisher, H. L., Matthews, T., Polanczyk, G. V., Wertz, J. and Arseneault, L.. 2020. Associations between ADHD and emotional problems from childhood to young adulthood: a longitudinal genetically sensitive study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61, 1234–1242. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Syu, Y. C., Huang, P. C., Wang, T. Y., Chang, Y. C. and Lin, L. Y.. 2020. Relationship among sensory over-responsivity, problem behaviors, and anxiety in emerging adults with autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 16, 2181–2190. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Tabasi, F. M., Aliabadi, F., Zarei, M. A., Qorbani, M. and Rostami, R.. 2016. Survey of behavioural problems and sensory processing in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal, 14, 63–68. [Google Scholar]
  46. Talay-Ongan, A. and Wood, K.. 2000. Unusual sensory sensitivities in autism: A possible crossroads. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 47, 201–212. [Google Scholar]
  47. Tengsujaritkul, M., Louthrenoo, O. and Boonchooduang, N.. 2020. Emotional/behavioural problems and functional impairment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. East Asian Archives of Psychiatry, 30, 79–83. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Thye, M. D., Bednarz, H. M., Herringshaw, A. J., Sartin, E. B. and Kana, R. K.. 2018. The impact of atypical sensory processing on social impairments in autism spectrum disorder. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 29, 151–167. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Tripathi, H. J. and Dwivedi, A.. 2019. Prevalence of sensory behaviours in normal Indian children with short sensory profile. International Journal of Advanced Research and Innovative Ideas in Education, 5, 395–399. [Google Scholar]
  50. Tseng, M.-H., Fu, C.-P., Cermak, S. A., Lu, L. and Shieh, J.-Y.. 2011. Emotional and behavioural problems in preschool children with autism: Relationship with sensory processing dysfunction. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 1441–1450. [Google Scholar]
  51. Venkatesh, C., Ravikumar, T., Andal, A. and Virudhagirinathan, B. S.. 2012. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children: Clinical profile and co-morbidity. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 34, 34–38. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data is not publicly available due to confidential reasons of research participants.

Articles from International Journal of Developmental Disabilities are provided here courtesy of The British Society of Developmental Disabilities

RESOURCES