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. 2025 Jun 27;39(8):836–846. doi: 10.1177/02698811251344692

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© The Author(s) 2025

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

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Figure 3. — Subjective anxiety, physiological response, and behavioral avoidance. (a) Subjective anxiety was assessed before capsule intake (baseline), after 30 min of rest, and after the emotional reactivity (ER) and approach-avoidance conflict tasks (AACT). Patients with panic disorder (PD) had overall higher anxiety levels than healthy controls (HCs), and anxiety increased over the session, but 150 mg caffeine had no effect on anxiety ratings or moderated the effect of group (PD; HC) or task on anxiety ratings. (b) Caffeine (150 mg) induced general higher skin conductance responses (SCR) across stimuli, with no differential effect between PD and HC or between neutral and emotional stimuli. SCR was higher for emotional than neutral stimuli. (c) Costly avoidance in the approach-avoidance conflict task (AACT) was higher in PD than HC, increased with 150 mg caffeine, and decreased with higher rewards. Error bars denote standard errors.