Table 1.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system levels.

System level	Explanation
Microsystem	The microsystem is the innermost layer and consists of the immediate settings of the learner, including the interpersonal relations and settings in which the individual lives. A “setting” in the microsystem is defined as “a place where people can readily engage in face-to-face interaction” Bronfenbrenner [(13), p. 22].
Mesosystem	The mesosystem, comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings containing the learner (micro-systems) i.e. “system of microsystems.” Bronfenbrenner described 4 types of interaction: multi-setting participation (working in different settings), inter-setting communication and inter-setting knowledge (how communication and knowledge is shared (or not) across settings) and indirect linkage (interactions that do not involve the learner but impact their experience).
Exosystem	The exosystem describes events that do not directly involve a learner but still have an impact on them.
Macrosystem	The macrosystem includes overarching cultural values, economic systems, political ideologies that shape the broader environment in which the learner is studying.
Chronosystem	This system represents the dimension of time, considering how both personal and societal changes over time influence a learner’s development.