Table 1.

The expression and function of TSPs in cardiovascular cells under distinct mechanical stimuli

Pathological States	Expression Tissue/Cell Type	Mechanical Stimulus	Name of TSPs	TSPs Function	Ref.
Vascular regenerative repair	Endothelial cells (ECs)	Laminar shear stress (6–15 dyn/cm²)	TSP-1↓	Shear stress downregulates TSP-1/CD36, reducing EC apoptosis and promoting vascular homeostasis	[56, 57]
Atherosclerosis	Endothelial cells (ECs)	Disturbed flow (low/oscillatory shear)	TSP-1↑	Upregulated TSP-1 activates TGF-β-dependent fibrotic pathways (COL1A1, CTGF, PAI1↑)	[46]
Pulmonary hypertension (PH)	Pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs)	Tensile force	TSP-1↑	Inhibiting PAEC proliferation via CD36/CD47 binding	[27]
Vascular remodeling	Vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs)	Cyclic tensile stress	TSP-1↑	Stabilizing F-actin complexes, enhancing cellular rigidity, and inhibiting SMC proliferation	[61]
Diabetic/ Hypertensive myopathy	Myocardial tissue	Pressure overload	TSP-1↑	Promoting myocardial fibrosis via TGF-β activation and exacerbating injury	[47]
Pulmonary vascular remodeling	Pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs)	Pathological pressure	TSP-1↑	Enhancing ER stress via JAK2-STAT3-TSP-1, driving PASMC proliferation/migration	[69]
Aortic pressure overload	Aortic vasculature	Transverse aortic constriction (TAC)	TSP-2↑	Preserving vascular structural integrity; deficiency causes medial-adventitial separation	[70]
Cardiac hypertrophy	Myocardium	Pressure overload	TSP-4↑	Mitigating cardiomyocyte injury/fibrosis by modulating ER stress responses	[71, 35]
Right ventricular pressure overload	Right ventricular cardiomyocytes	Pressure overload	TSP-4↑	Suppressing hypertrophy/fibrosis via JNK/Runx2 signaling	[72]