Algorithm 2: ECFDBO (Environment-aware Chaotic Force-field Dung Beetle Optimizer)

Input: population size: N; problem dimension: d; search boundary: [lb, ub]; maximum number of iterations: Tmax; fitness function: f(x) Output: Optimal position: Xbest

1:      Initialize {Xi}₁ⁿ ∼ Uniform (lb, ub) 2:      Evaluate fi, set Xbest 3:      for t = 1…Tmax do 4:                  // Construct the set of suboptimal solutions Q 5:                  Sort {Xi} by fitness, let Q ← best K = max (3, ⌊0.1·N⌋) 6:                  for each i = 1…N do 7:                        Compute 8:                                  Fi ← Fg − Fr← Calculated using Equation (14) 9:                              if rand () < pm then 10:                                  η ←Calculated using Equation (15) 11:                                  Xi ←Attraction–Repulsion Mutation 12:                             else 13:                                    // Chaos Steps Update 14:                                    Xi ← Calculated using Equation (9) 15:                             end if 16:                             Xi ← SmartReflect(Xi, lb, ub, ε) ← Calculated using Equation (12) 17:                 end for 18:                 {Xi}← DBO_ Stage({Xi})      // Rolling, Reproduction, Foraging, Stealing 19:                 Evaluate all fi, update Xbest 20:    end for 21:    return Xbest