Figure 2.

Microbiome–immune response–cancer axis: a triangular interaction model. This figure illustrates the dynamic interplay between the microbiome, immune response, and cancer development. On the left, the microbiome is represented by gut and tumor-associated bacteria, highlighting beneficial species (Akkermansia, Faecalibacterium, Bifidobacterium) and dysbiotic taxa (Fusobacterium, H. pylori). The immune response section (top) includes antigen-presenting cells, T cells, cytokines, and microbial metabolites (e.g., SCFAs, indoles) that modulate systemic immunity and tumor microenvironment activity. On the right, the cancer section depicts tumors influenced by chronic inflammation, immune evasion, and microbial-driven metabolic changes. Arrows indicate key signaling pathways, including microbial regulation of T-cell activity, tumor-associated macrophage polarization, and the impact of dysbiosis on carcinogenesis.