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. 2025 Jul 26;26:253. doi: 10.1186/s12931-025-03327-1

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Applications of lung organoids. (A) A comprehensive cellular map of human lung development was proposed based on single-cell techniques and spatial analysis. Reproduced with permission from Ref [101]., Copyright 2022, Cell. (B) A cell type predominantly located in the developing human lung lower airways was identified using single-cell RNA sequencing. Reproduced with permission from Ref [102]., Copyright 2023, National Acad Sciences. (C) Infection of human lung AT2 cells by SARS-CoV-2 initiates a swift inflammatory response that is intrinsic to the epithelial cells. Reproduced with permission from Ref [106]., Copyright 2020, Cell. (D) Airway organoids serve as an exposure model to study the biological effects of microplastic. Reproduced with permission from Ref [107]., Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (E) Patient-derived LADC organoids for drug testing. Reproduced with permission from Ref [82]., Copyright 2020, Cell