Abstract
Microgreens have recently gained importance being a dense source of bioactive compounds that offer several health benefits. This review explores the innovation in non-thermal techniques and their application in seed germination and microgreen cultivation, with a major focus on increasing the growth rate and improving nutritional and bioactive composition. Non-thermal techniques like ultrasonication, ultraviolet light, cold plasma, and magnetic field treatment are discussed for their ability to enhance the rate of germination and improve the seed quality by influencing plant growth rate and minimizing microbial proliferation. These methods align with sustainable food processing, offering energy efficiency and minimal environmental impact. As microgreens are nutrient-dense foods rich in vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, offer significant health benefits such as antidiabetic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cholinergic making them an ideal candidate for functional food applications.
Keywords: Microgreens, Non-thermal processing, Functional food, Phytochemicals
Highlights
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Non-thermal techniques emphasizing their role in enhancing microgreen quality.
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Enhance bioactive and microbial quality in microgreens effectively and sustainably.
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Potential health benefits of microgreens are discussed.
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Microgreens' rich nutrients and phytochemicals make them potent functional foods.
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Incorporation of microgreens in different food systems.
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of healthy lifestyles and balanced diets. This shift in mindset has contributed to the increasing popularity of microgreens, due to their vibrant color, exceptional nutritional benefits, and fresh, flavourful taste (Manolis et al., 2023). Microgreens are immature and young plants that are produced from different seeds (Manika & Arunima, 2023). It is a relatively new concept in vegetative production and a good alternative in the case of traditional farming because they require minimal space, have a faster growth cycle, and can be easily cultivated in controlled indoor or urban environments (Bhabani, Shams and Dash, 2024). Microgreens are emerging as functional foods of the 21st century, as their higher nutraceutical properties attract the consumer. Functional foods are those that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition, potentially helping to prevent disease or promote optimal health (Choe et al., 2018). While coming towards the broad area of cultivation they hold a great potential, particularly in case of urban populations and also shows a positive impact in food security (Moraru et al., 2022). Microgreens have a very shorter life cycle and deteriorate quickly after being harvested. Microgreens are also known as “baby greens” as they are larger than sprouts but smaller than mature greens and due to this their harvesting stage period falls between these two phases. Tender young plants are not counted in microgreens. Moreover, these young leaves have a higher percentage of phytochemical, vitamins, mineral and other nutraceutical properties (Di Gioia, Renna and Santamaria, 2017)
The nutritional and functional properties of microgreens are influenced by various pre-harvesting factors like species, watering, growing medium, temperature, nutrient supplementation, seed pre-treatment, micro-elements biofortification, and light conditions (Rouphael et al., 2021). Microgreens are rich in phytochemical profile that includes phenolic compounds, carotenoids content, xanthophylls, vitamins (A, C, E, and, K), glucosinolates, amino acids, and minerals (Di Gioia, De Bellis, Mininni, Santamaria, & Serio, 2017)
Microgreens also possess several health benefits for medical conditions like thalassemia and hemolytic anaemia, and they also reduce the risk of chronic heart disease and skin-related issues (Niroula et al., 2019). Some researchers have also reported that the application of non-thermal treatment on cereal grains, including wheat, barley, and rye helps in enhancing their germination rate and also improving the nutritional profile. Moreover, wheat microgreens are a rich source of vitamins and minerals while the microgreens of barley are rich in antioxidant properties and dietary fiber. The non-thermal treatment can improve the cultivation practices and also help in improving the health benefits (Gregório et al., 2024; Mir et al., 2021; Marques, Darby, & Kraft, 2021; Szopa et al., 2023; Pratap et al., 2022). The germination of microgreen in case of pulses and oilseed were also explored and optimization of conditions for different seeds for enhancing the nutritional value and growth rate. Studies have been reported on optimization of various parameters including temperature condition, seed treatment for the development of microgreens, while managing the nutritional profile, and enhancing germination rate. Several findings were reported to increase the efficiency of microgreen production and also make them viable for commercial cultivation so they can be utilized as nutritional additives in diet. Globally, the commercialization of microgreen production is limited because of the rapid deterioration in the quality of microgreens after harvesting due to their rapid respiration rate, also the tendency to lose freshness quickly (Chandra et al., 2012; Kou et al., 2013). Maintaining the quality of microgreens is one of the most important challenges during post-harvest handling. However, in recent years, researchers have been exploring advancements in preservation techniques to extend their shelf life and make it easier to study the nutritional quality of plants. Conventional pre-treatment methods involve hydrothermal or chemical treatments for seed priming before germination, which may be effective for microbial inactivation but leads to the degradation of heat sensitive nutrients and phytochemicals, and also reducing the germination percentage and seedling vigor. Thus, various non-thermal methods are explored as pretreatment for microgreen production such as ultrasonication, UV light, plasma, and magnetic field treatments which help to improve germination and microgreen quality by enhancing plant growth rates and suppressing microbial activity. These non-thermal methods improve germination and microgreen quality by mechanisms like surface sterilization, improved water uptake, and stimulation of metabolic activity and also help to retain nutritional and phytochemical potential (Novickij et al., 2016; Tuan et al., 2018). Several innovative techniques were used in case of food processing including high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric fields (PEF), cold plasma treatment, ultrasound treatment, which shows a positive impact on social and economical factors. These technique helps to reduce the energy consumption and green house gas emissions while comparing with traditional and thermal treatment, aligning with sustainable goals (Chaudhary et al., 2024). While compared with traditional or thermal treatment, economically, nonthermal treatments often lead to low operational cost and help to improve productivity and quality and also help in enhancing market competitiveness (Harikrishna et al., 2023). Meanwhile some challenges including scalability, maintainance cost, consumer acceptance, regulatory hurdles remain. Despite these challenges, industries are increasingly investing in these technologies due to growing demand for minimally processed, clean-label, and nutrient-retentive foods. Moreover, while integrating non thermal treatment, it helps in contributing more sustainable and economically viable food processing systems (León-Bravo, Moretto, Cagliano and Caniato, 2019)
This review aims to contribute a comprehensive understanding of microgreen cultivation, emphasizing its various advantages in promoting health and sustainability. With the rising global demand for nutrient-rich and environment-friendly food options, microgreens have emerged as a promising addition to healthy diets. However, ensuring the safety and quality of these novel greens remains a critical area of focus. Emphasizing non-thermal innovations, this article explores cutting-edge techniques aimed at improving the safety, quality, and bioactive composition of microgreens (Zhang et al., 2021). This review explores the effect of various non-thermal pre-treatments such as pulsed electric field, cold plasma, ultrasonication, plasma-activated water, etc., on the quality and nutritional profile of microgreens. It also includes a discussion on the bioactive composition of various cereals, pulses and millet microgreens and their potential application as functional foods. The health benefits of microgreen consumption, such as anti-diabetic effect, antioxidant activity, anti-obesity and anti-cholinergic effect have also been discussed.
The literature search for this review was conducted using databases including Web of Science, Scopus and Google scholar, focusing on publications from the year 2005 upto 2025. Keywords like ‘microgreens’, ‘non-thermal technologies’, ‘seed germination’, ‘non thermal techniques AND seed germination’, and specific techniques like ‘Cold plasma’, ‘pulse electric field’, ‘ultrasound’ were used in various combinations. Studies were screened based on relevance, clarity of methodology, and applicability to microgreens and seed pre-treatment. The recent publications focusing on the last 10 years were mainly selected to design the present review.
2. Bioactive composition of microgreens
These bioactive chemicals, which are present in large quantities in microgreens, can affect various pathways associated with inflammation (Bhabani et al., 2024). Microgreens are rich in bioactive compounds, including vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals (indicated in Fig. 1), that provide various health benefits such as help in enhancing antioxidant properties, supports wound healing, collagen synthesis, and immune function; it remains largely intact in microgreens since they are consumed fresh. Antioxidant minerals like copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se) act as enzyme cofactors, reducing the body's oxidative stress. Additionally, these microgreens also consist of phytochemicals such as phenolic compounds and carotenoid content. This carotenoid content works as an antioxidant and help in supports various physiological roles. Moreover, in case of phenolic content such as tannin and flavonoids also provide antioxidant benefit for plants and human being (Niroula et al., 2021).
Fig. 1.
Schematic diagram of major bioactive compounds present in microgreens.
2.1. Total phenolic content
Microgreens have phytochemical constituents like phenols, which are the secondary compounds that help to increase the metabolic profile and reduce the risk of inflammation, and also prevent free radical damage. Usually, in the case of plant phenolics, they work as an antioxidant and help to heal the body when damage is caused by free radicals and offer a healthy immune system to a human being (Bhaswant, Shanmugam, Miyazawa, Abe and Miyazawa, 2023). These phytochemicals were classified into different types, such as phenolic acid, tannins, flavonoids, and lignans. Phenolic content has different variations among cereal, pulses and oilseed microgreens, contributing to their antioxidant properties, reaching up to 30 mg GAE/g (Lone et al., 2024).
Microgreen which come in the category of Brassicaceae, Malvaceae, Apiaceae and Lamiaceae family give higher antioxidant properties. These vary in the range of 303.3 mmol/kg to 878.3 mmol/kg in jute and cress (Kyriacou et al., 2019).
According to the observation, microgreens of radish, roselle, fenugreek, broccoli, red cabbage, which were germinated under optimum conditions, show significant variation in germination rates (Sharma, Rawat, et al., 2022). The results show that TPC was higher in the case of pearl millet microgreen and less quantity of TPC was found in mustard microgreen. During the harvesting period, millet microgreens show the genetic ability to produce more phenolics as a defence mechanism, while mustard microgreens show a lower level of phenolic content due to different metabolic pathways and oxidative stress (Dhaka et al., 2023). Additionally, it was discovered that the total phenolic content of microgreens varied from 10.71 to 11.88 mg/g, with broccoli having a ten-fold higher concentration than both the mature and sprouted equivalents. The phenolic contents of microgreens promote glucose homeostasis and several other bodily metabolic processes (Tan et al., 2020). Phenolic acids and their derivatives, including caffeoylquinic, ferulic, sinapic, and chlorogenic acids, were found to be present in all the samples, including radish, amaranth, and beetroot microgreens (Wojdyło et al., 2020).
According to the maturity phase, genetic traits and environmental factors, total phenolic content (TPC) were changed. Maize and red clover consist of higher TPC, which belongs to the same group and the lowest TPC was in the Amazon cowpea. The highest amount of TPC in legumes was in lentil, and legumes are the main antioxidant source in foods with an abundant amount of TPC in their grains (Altuner et al., 2021).
2.2. Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins, also known as anthocyane, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments found in plant which is responsible for red, purple, and blue colors in different plants, including microgreens. They belong to the flavonoid group and are produced through the phenylpropanoid pathway. This anthocyanin content plays a major role because of its antioxidant properties, which help to neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress (Zheng et al., 2021). Microgreens consist of vibrant colors due to their natural pigment and support a healthy heart, reduce cancer risk, and also help boost the immune system (Khoo et al., 2017; Liu, Li, et al., 2021). Anthocyanin content is high in microgreens derived from cereals like barley or wheat, pulses such as lentils or chickpeas, and oilseeds like flax or sunflower, and also provides a concentrated source of these bioactive compounds compared to their mature counterparts. A study reported that LED light affects anthocyanin production differently in microgreen varieties. Some researchers noted that microgreens grown hydroponically had lower levels of chlorophylls, carotenoids, phenols, and anthocyanins compared to baby or mature leaves of the same species (Carvalho & Folta, 2016). Certain microgreen varieties accumulate anthocyanins or secrete essential oils, which have been shown to inhibit bacterial growth when purified (Bulgari et al., 2017). Other study reported that anthocyanin content are simultaneously elevated from microgreen for increasing the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). Meanwhile Anthocyanin content of kale, arugula, and mustard increased 788 %, 361 %, and 162 %, respectively when PPFDs increased from 100 to 600 μmol·m−2·s−1 (Jones-Baumgardt, Ying, Zheng, & Bozzo, 2020)
2.3. Ascorbic acid content
Ascorbic acid in microgreens plays a crucial role as a powerful antioxidant that helps to support immune function, produce collagen, and enhance iron absorption. The concentration of vitamin C in microgreens can be influenced by factors such as light exposure, growing conditions, and harvesting time, with optimal levels typically present when harvesting at the peak of their growth (Xiao, Lester, Luo, & Wang, 2012). Total ascorbic acid content was six time higher than mature counterpart in red cabbage, broccoli, and amaranth microgreen. Strong antioxidant ascorbic acid effectively shows positive results in numerous biological processes in humans. Additionally, it substantially impacts the immune system's control and collagen formation (Haytowitz et al., 2018).
Light exposure significantly impacts vitamin C levels in microgreens. Adequate light stimulates the production of photosynthetic pigments and enhances the activity of enzymes involved in vitamin C synthesis, leading to higher ascorbic acid levels (Bhaswant et al., 2023). Researchers concluded that ascorbate levels are significantly increased in wheat, maize, lentil, peas, and bean also shows a positive impact on longer germination periods under light and dark condition in pulses and beans (Maricle, 2010). This rise in ascorbic acid was linked to the reactivation of the enzyme l-galactono-1, 4-lactone dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the final step of the ascorbate biosynthesis pathway in plants and similar results were shown in the study of (Niroula et al., 2021) which stated that ascorbic acid content in barley and wheat microgreens increases significantly with the number of growth days, especially under light conditions. However, prolonged exposure to darkness or growth beyond 18 days does not significantly enhance ascorbic acid levels, and high ascorbate peroxidase activity in dark conditions limits its accumulation. Light exposure after de-etiolation boosts ascorbic acid synthesis, surpassing levels in continuously daylight-grown microgreens. Insufficient light can reduce these activities, leading to lower vitamin C concentrations.
Another research report ed that lettuce microgreen can be successfully germinated with nutrition available in substrate. This shows 27 % reduction in fresh yield capacity and enhancing the ascorbic acid content by 187 % compared to the fertigation method (Pannico et al., 2020). With growing time duration ascorbic acid content in beet microgreen were change significantly. The ascorbic acid content increased from 710.97 mg/100 g dry matter on day 9 to a peak of 1083.30 mg/100 g dry matter on day 15, and after this, it declined gradually. On a fresh matter basis, it ranged from 35 to 51 mg/100 g, with the highest on day 15 (Acharya et al., 2021).
2.4. Chlorophyll and carotenoids
Chlorophyll and carotenoids are the two most widely distributed pigments among plants. Chlorophyll is a photosynthetic pigment that helps the plants to carry out photosynthesis by absorbing energy from light and is present mainly in two form chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b (Niroula et al., 2019). Carotenoid content plays an important role in the case of nutritional values in microgreens. This compound has several health benefits including an antioxidant property that reduces oxidative stress improves eye health by protecting against macular degeneration, enhances immune system function, skin protection from UV damage, reduces risk of heart disease and potential cancer prevention (Altuner et al., 2021). Microgreens consist of higher levels of carotenoids including beta-carotenoids, and zeaxanthin, compared to mature plants. Basically, Carotenoids are red, orange and yellow isoprenoid pigment which is synthesized by the photosynthesis and also with few fungi and bacterial but not in case of mammals (Cuttriss et al., 2011; Flores-Perez & Rodriguez-Concepcion, 2012; Kopsell & Sams, 2013). In plants, carotenoids are light-harvesting pigments in chloroplasts which helps to protect plant from photo-oxidative damage. According to previous studies, plants' largest component of carotenoids is composed of lutein and β-carotene. These carotenoids play a major antioxidant role in human nutrition (Brazaitytė et al., 2015). The chlorophyll content of amaranth, beetroot, green peas, kale and radish ranged from 195.6 μg/g to 638.5 μg/g of fresh weight. Chlorophyll a and b along with its isomers and pheophytin are the major chlorophyll pigments found in microgreens (Wojdyło et al., 2020).
Pigmented LED blue light has been shown to affect the pigments in the microgreens. In mustard and beet, 33 % blue light increase chlorophyll and carotenoid content. Mustard which grows at 25 % blue light shows higher chlorophyll content and carotenoid content. Low blue light (0 % and 16 %) reduced chlorophyll in mustard and parsley, with 16 % having a negative effect on mustard's chlorophyll a content (Samuolienė et al., 2017). Total chlorophyll levels started increasing after 10 days of nutrient solution feeding and peaked at 20 days. However, in the 0- and 5-day nutrient solution feeding treatments, chlorophyll content was lower, even though plant tissues had more magnesium, which is essential for chlorophyll production and light absorption (Petropoulos et al., 2021).
3. Effect of novel non-thermal treatments on microgreens
3.1. Cold plasma
Cold plasma treatment seems to be the most promising and effective nonthermal technology and has been used for a number of purposes, such as secondary metabolite synthesis, plant growth, and seed germination (Liu et al., 2022). Cold plasma treatment as a seed priming method is more eco-friendly and helps in improving crop yield and nutritional quality, also making it an effective tool for sustainable agricultural practices and food security (Bhabani et al., 2024). The use of cold plasma treatment in microgreen cultivations provides benefits by improving the seed germination process and also helps in surface modification. They show a positive effect on nutritional quality and growth rate without causing thermal damage to the plants. It represents a sustainable, chemical-free technology to improve the cultivation of microgreens. Non-thermal plasma (NTP) treatment on mustard green seed helps in enhancing the germination process by increasing isothiocyanate levels and also effectively boosts bioactive compounds and anticancer properties. Additionally, it enhances the development of bioactive components which help to reduce the growth of cancer cell and induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) (Saengha et al., 2021). Isothiocyanates have been shown to have an inhibitory effect against tumor cells, mediated by the modulation of various pathways related to cancer such as signal transduction, oxidative stress generation, apoptotic induction and enzymatic detoxification (Mitsiogianni et al., 2019). The factor affecting non-thermal plasma treatment on seed germination and microgreen growth plays an important role because of plasma-produced reactive species and are also beneficial in faster, sustainable growth (Motrescu et al., 2024). Cold plasma improves seed germination by different mechanisms including surface etching, which improves the water absorption and gas exchange; production of reactive oxygen species, breaking the seed dormancy and enzyme activation for efficient mobilization of stored nutrients. In a study conducted on mustard greens and red-tailed radish, it was observed that cold plasma-treated seeds showed enhanced antioxidant activity and significant cytotoxicity against A549 lung cancer cells, with RTR-P (plasma-treated rat-tailed radish) displaying stronger anticancer effects (Matra et al., 2022). Cold plasma treatment of wheat seeds at 80 W can majorly show a positive impact on seed germination rate which is 6.7 % and germination potential up to 6.0 % compared with control (Jiang et al., 2014). Plasma treatment with Argon has been associated to improve the seed germination rate of soybean and also shows a positive effect on sprout growth and also uplifting ATP demethylation levels. Similarly, while germinating the mung beans after cold plasma treatment has been found to enhance the activity of hydrolytic enzymes such as amylase, protease and also shows a positive impact on the process of germination (Zhang et al., 2017). Other research has shown that after treating six cultivars of Thai germinated brown rice (GBR) under optimal plasma conditions, the most sensitive rice cultivar exhibited significant improvements. Specifically, the germination percentage increased by 84 %, root length by 57 %, and seedling height by 69 % (Yodpitak et al., 2019). Other study has investigated the effect of plasma at different interval of time on germination rate and growth parameters of cumin seeds. Seed germination was increased up to 43.24 % with amplified vigor index and dry weight at 3 min (2 kV) cold plasma exposure, whereas 15.5 %, 41.79 %, and 34.5 % increment in total chlorophyll content, root, and shoot length respectively was also obtained when compared with control (Shashikanthalu et al., 2020).
In a study conducted on fenugreek seed germination where Pre-sowing cold plasma (CP) treatment enhanced fenugreek seed germination, wettability, and seedling growth, with the 20-s treatment showing the best results. Despite hydrophobic recovery, CP-treated seeds maintained improved properties. These findings support CP as a promising seed treatment for agricultural applications (Guragain et al., 2024).
3.2. Plasma activated water (PAW)
Plasma-activated water (PAW) is an effective technique for disinfection of microorganisms, inactivation of enzymes, and also enhances the quality of different kinds of seeds also including starch modification with enhancement of seed germination rate, and traditional sanitizers for food disinfection. It uses reactive species without applying gas plasma directly on the food surface. This technique helps in reducing the negative effects such as the degradation of bioactive compounds and surface etching and helps maintain the quality by controlling bacterial growth (Thirumdas et al., 2018). PAW is an alternative method for food preservation as it is highly utilized extensively for the disinfection of food products, helps in plant growth, and germination of the seeds. It was also effective in microbial decontamination and inactivation of enzymes (Pipliya et al., 2023). While extending plasma discharge time from 30 to 90 s, negatively affected mung bean seed germination. Similar trends were observed in total flavonoid and phenolic content, as well as growth parameters. This impact may be linked to the active components in PAW, such as NO₂−, NO₃−, and H₂O₂. Optimal PAW treatment duration is crucial to balancing its benefits and potential adverse effects (Fan et al., 2020). Some studies have concluded that with an increase in time duration in plasma treatment on seeds or kernels shows a positive effect on seedling growth. The germination rate was found to be higher in the Rat-tailed radish seeds which is exposed to plasma for 2 and 4 min. While compared with control sample germination rate seems higher by 10 %. It is due to the reactive species in Plasma activated water which increase the rate of germination and also shows positive impact on water absorption capacity (Tanakaran et al., 2020). Plasma-activated water (PAW) generates reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, altering water's redox potential and conductivity. It serves as an effective antimicrobial agent while also enhancing seed germination and plant growth, likely due to increased nitrate and nitrite levels. PAW holds promise for improving agricultural productivity and mitigating drought stress (Thirumdas et al., 2018). The reactive oxygen species at low concentrations may act as signalling molecules, stimulating the expression of germination-related genes. Plasma-activated water also reduces the Abscisic acid synthesis, which is responsible for maintaining dormancy, and promotes the biosynthesis of gibberellic acid that is essential for initiating the germination process (Fan et al., 2020). Mung bean sprouts when incubated with plasma activated water produced by a 30-s plasma jet exposure, the amount of total aerobic mesophilic bacteria decreased by 2.3 log CFU/g and the amount of yeasts and moulds decreased by 2.8 log CFU/g. However, the flavonoids, antioxidants, and total phenolic content of sprouts remained unchanged (Xiang et al., 2019).
3.3. Pulsed electric field (PEF)
PEF treatment is a non-thermal processing technology that is used to stimulate microgreen growth and enhance their quality. In this technique, microgreens were exposed to short and high-voltage electric pulses with different frequencies that permeabilized the cell membrane without affecting the quality, and also permitted the control cell response that shows a positive impact on plant growth, shelf life stability and nutritional values (Bhabani et al., 2024). The main effect on plant matrix in electric field application is that the pulse induces electropermeabilization (formation of located pores in cell membranes of cells), and these factors are dependent upon the composition (conductivity) (Madia et al., 2021). The overview of methods of innovative non-thermal techniques for the development of microgreens is represented in Fig. 2. Several studies have reported that PEF treatment increased photosynthetic rates by up to 31 % in kale, wheat, and spinach microgreens compared to controls, it also helps to enhance the fresh weight and color quality without affecting the shelf life of microgreen. However, it also improved the respiration rate in microgreens and effectively boosted microgreen production with plant-specific treatment optimizations (Katsenios et al., 2021). Another study reported that increased PEF help in raising peroxide, phenolic compounds, and total tocopherols, improving oil quality. However, oil extraction and protein content peaked before declining, which makes PEF a valuable and promising oil extraction method (Mohseni et al., 2020). Meanwhile, several studies have explored pulse electric field application to inactivate enzymes in the case of liquid and show positive impact on plant cell permeability for extraction of compound, Several studies started investigating the lower energy level with its application for non-inactivation purposes and also involving treatment of seed (Sitzmann et al., 2016). It has been reported that while treating soyabean seed at 0.1,1.0, 10.0, and 100 Hz with a time duration of 5 h for 20 days, significantly enhanced the rate of germination. While, 10 and 100 Hz Pulsed Electromagnetic Field (PEMF) treatment shows higher impact. Moreover, alpha-amylase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, nitrate reductase, peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase activity were shown to be greatly enhanced in pulse electromagnetic field (10 Hz) exposed soyabean seeds (Radhakrishnan & Kumari, 2013). Standard germination tests at 25 °C and 95 % humidity revealed that PEF treatments (240 and 960 J) significantly reduced endogenous and pathogenic seed microflora. While microbial survival decreased across various crops, germination rates improved notably in winter wheat, barley, lettuce, and tomato at 960 J. Enhanced root development and seedling growth were observed, particularly in winter barley (Evrendilek et al., 2019).
Fig. 2.
Diagrammatic representation of innovative non-thermal techniques for microgreen development.
Table 1 represents the advancements in developing cereal, millet, pulse, and oilseed microgreens through innovative non-thermal pre-treatments and their comparative effects.
Table 1.
Comparative studies on the effects of different non-thermal pre-treatments on the quality of various microgreens.
| Type of seed | Scientific name | Pictorial view | Pre-treatment applied | Observations | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wheat | Triticum aestivum |  |
Microwave irradiation (600W for 10 sec) power from 200 to 900 W and a frequency of 2450 MHz |
|
Wang, Wang, and Guo, 2018 |
| Pulsed Electromagnetic Field (PEF) (35-80 J/pulse energy) Pre-sowing: 15, 30, 45min Seedling stage:-5,10,15 min Before harvesting: 10, 20, 30 min |
|
Katsenios et al., 2021 | |||
| Ultraviolet light treatment (Dose of 50-1000 J m-2, with a step of 50 J m-2) |
|
Semenov, Korotkova, Sakhno, Marenych, and НANHUR, V., Liashenko, V., and Kaminsky, V., 2020 | |||
| Non-thermal plasma treatment (15kV for 5, 15 & 30min) |
|
Dobrin, Magureanu, Mandache, and Ionita, 2015 | |||
| Barley | Hordeum vulgare |  |
Electromagnetic field Temp 20°C for 7 days Frequency 50Hz for 1 sec. |
|
Petrukhina et al., 2022 |
| Plasma activated water treatment (Frequency 50Hz at voltage of 16KV) |
|
Benabderrahim, Bettaieb, Hannachi, Rejili, and Dufour, 2024 | |||
| Ultrasound treatment Frequency of 20–60 khz Radiatio power 40 watts Time duratio 30–180 seconds |
Increasing yield percentage by 35-40%. Maximum increase in length of sprouted seed were 1.73 cm compare to control sample
|
Volkhonov, Belyakov, and Kukhar, 2023 | |||
| Rice | Oryza sativa |  |
Low-Frequency High-Voltage Pulsed Electric Field (LH-PEF) Treatment (Voltage: 13kV) |
|
Tiangang et al., 2023 |
| Pearl Millet | Pennisetum glaucum |  |
Plasma-activated water treatment (Time: 30 min Soaking time 24hr |
|
Mohandoss, Mohan, Balasubramaniyan, Assadi, and Loganathan, 2024 |
| Cold plasma treatment (Voltage 8 kV Frequency 6 kHz) |
|
Charu, Vignesh, Chidanand, Mahendran, and Baskaran, 2024 | |||
| Finger millet | Eleusine coracana |  |
Ultrasound treatment (Frequency 40KHz, 76% amplitude, time 17.5 min) |
|
Dubey and Tripathy, 2024 |
| Little millet | Panicum sumatrense |  |
Ultrasound treatment (40kHz/ 150W for 30min) |
|
Dey, Saxena, Kumar, Maity, and Tarafdar, 2024 |
| Cold plasma treatment (20 kV for 20 min) |
|
Jaddu et al., 2024 | |||
| Foxtail millet | Panicum miliaceum |  |
Cold plasma technique (Voltage 1 and 2 kV Time 1, 3 and 5 min Frequency-70-100kHz) |
|
Manika and Arunima, 2023 |
| Electromagnetic field (35–80 J/pulse energy, 1 × 10−6 s wave duration, 35–80 × 106 W wave power, Time require:- 60–90 min) |
|
Ramesh et al., 2020 | |||
| Lentils | Lens culinaris |  |
|||
| LED light treatment (Fluorescent light, Red LED light, Blue LED light, UV-A, UV-B) |
|
Park, Kwon, Kim, Duan, and Eom, 2024 | |||
| Soybeans | Glycine max |  |
Ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-C (<280 nm) radiation Power 4W 72 hr time duration) |
|
Reddy, Patro, Lokhande, Bellaloui, and Gao, 2016 |
| Cold plasma treatment (Temperature 25°C Power: 60 (T1), 80 (T2), 100 (T3) and 120 W (T4) Exposure Time:15 sec) |
|
Ling et al., 2014 | |||
| Chickpeas | Cicer arietinum |  |
LED Technology (Hydropriming followed by LED light treatment- White, Red and blue LED) |
|
Aasim, Akin, and Ali, 2024 |
| Cold plasma treatment Exposure time 0,30, and 60 sec |
|
Fereydooni, Alizade, and H., 2022 | |||
UV-B radiation
|
|
Ugandhar, Prasad, Venkateshwarlu, Odelu, and Parvathi, 2018 | |||
| Mung | Vigna radiata |  |
UV-A and UV-C radiation (254nm & 366nm wavelength Time: 2, 4 & 6h) |
|
Hamid and Jawaid, 2011 |
| UV-C light exposure:- 2, 5, and 10-min duration Wavelength of 251.4 nm Germination time 24 h at 25°C. Power 15W wavelength 251.4 nm |
Highest antioxidant activity (66.1%) were found for 10 minutes treated sample and lowest were recorded on control samples (47.7%)
|
Tripathi et al., 2024 | |||
| Plasma-activated water treatment (5kV, 40KHz, 750W Time: 15, 30, 60 & 90sec) |
|
Fan, Liu, Ma, and Xiang, 2020 | |||
| Peas | Pisum sativum |  |
Ultrasonic treatment (40kHz for 1min at 25°C) |
|
Chiu and Sung, 2014 |
| Plasma Activated Water (Power: 1W, Wavelength 1064nm) |
|
Rathore, Tiwari, and Nema, 2022 | |||
| LED light treatment (115 μmol m−2 s−1 (low light, LL) and 230 μmol m−2 s−1 (high light, HL)) Pea seeds were soaked in a 10% solution of Chlorella vulgaris algae |
|
Frąszczak, Kula-Maximenko, and Li, 2024 | |||
| Fenugreek | Trigonella foenumgraecum |  |
Non-thermal plasma treatment (High-voltage (HV) signal source up to 10- 18 kv peak value. Electron accelerated beam :-15KV) |
|
Motrescu et al., 2024 |
| Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) |
|
(Haddaji et al., 2023) | |||
| Sunflower | Helianthus annuus |  |
LED lightning treatment (Frequency between 300 Hz to 600 Hz) |
|
Balmadrid, Mallorca, Gerardo, and Medina, 2022 |
| Magnetic field treatment (Magnetic field induction value:- 0–500 μt Frequency :- 100 -200Hz, Time require:- 1 s to 100 h Seed required:- 450 seed Seeds were hydrated for 4 hours at 20 °C. Incubation time:- 20 °C for 2 days) |
|
Zaguła, Saletnik, Bajcar, Saletnik, and Puchalski, 2021 | |||
| Flaxseed | Linum usitatissimum |  |
Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) treatment (Led type: blue/red (1:2 ratio) and green (10%) leds Light duration: 16 hours light, 8 hours dark) |
|
Santin et al., 2022 |
| Plasma-chemically activated aqueous solutions (Time :- 10-16 min Concentration of the active substance (hydrogen peroxide) in process water from 300 to 700 mg/l Temperature of 17–21 °C, Germination process 2-7 days) |
|
Kovaliova et al., 2023 | |||
| Mustard | Brassica juncea |  |
Magnetic field treatment (0, 50, 100 mT for 30 min 12-hour interval. 25°C) |
|
Feizi, Salari, Kaveh, and Firuzi, 2020 |
| Cold plasma treatment (Voltages of 21 or 23 kv for 5 min Optimal voltage at 21 kv Seeds were germinated on vermiculite in a tray at 25°C) |
|
Saengha et al., 2019 | |||
| Ultraviolet -C treatment (Exposed to ultraviolet C for 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours at 5 cm and 20 cm distances from UV source) |
|
Ebrahim, Abdelrazek, El-Shora, and El-Bediwi, 2022 | |||
| Pumpkin seed | Cucurbita pepo |  |
|||
| Laser light (L), electromagnetic stimulation (p) (23% (intensity), 11% greenness index) |
|
Hunek et al., 2021 | |||
| Ultrasonication (1 to 4 cycles of 10 min, 38 W/L, 25 kHz, 25 or 45 °C) |
|
Pacheco et al., 2025 |
3.4. Microwave radiation (MWR)
The term Radiation refers to the energy transfer through space in the form of waves or particles, often in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiations of the different wavelengths has shown diverse effects, some of them are harmful and some are safe. When radiofrequency (RF) energy that involves microwaves is applied to damp materials, it starts heating the damp material through a process called dielectric heating (Bhabani et al., 2024). There would be a profound impact of microwave radiation on microgreens which help in emphasizing the germination process and also shows positive response on effectively enhancing the microgreen growth rates, and upturn nutrient levels when used in minimum doses. Microwaves penetrate the seed and interact with polar molecules, mainly water, leading to the rotations and molecular vibrations. This physical stimulation improves the permeability of the cell membrane, thus increasing the hydration rate, which stimulates the early metabolic reactivation of enzymes (Wang et al., 2019). High power microwave treatment of barley resulted in a threefold increase in the Auxin levels and a 65 % reduction in Abscisic acid levels (Mumtaz et al., 2024). Microwave radiation frequencies are significantly higher than the frequency of physiological processes. The effect of microwave treatment on weed seeds was analyzed and observed that exposure to a power level of 2.8 kW completely stopped germination due to the thermal effects of microwave energy (Sahin, 2014). Electrolyzed radiation significantly affects the movement of ions because of its large wavelength with the inertia of ions and liquid environment viscosity (Hinrikus et al., 2018). Microwave radiation at 485 W was found to effectively reduce the microbial-infected lentil seeds from 17 % to 9 % (Taheri et al., 2019). To increase the dietary intake of oil in any seed disinfestation operation, microwave radiation may offer an efficient and environmentally responsible treatment method (Motallebi, 2016) The growth index and biochemical composition of seeds was found to increase in the case of barley seeds exposed to 9.3HHz, whereas in the case of corn and bell pepper seeds, the growth rate increased significantly after using microwave-treated water as compared to tap water (Alattar et al., 2018; Kumari et al., 2018). Some plants may seem unaffected by UV radiation, but they are protected by secondary compounds like flavonoids, which act as natural UV screens by absorbing radiation and shielding delicate leaf tissues. Studies show that exposure to UV-B increases flavonoid and anthocyanin levels, enhancing this protective mechanism (Shaukat et al., 2011).
3.5. Ultrasound treatment
In this technique, ultrasonic waves are used to disrupt the plant cell wall which helps in enhancing the quality of bioactive compounds, nutritional quality and other cellular components. It creates a microscopic bubble with ultrasonic waves and generates the shear forces that rupture cell walls (Garcia-Larez et al., 2025). In microgreen seed germination, this treatment involves high-frequency sound waves which help to enhance the rate of germination and growth rate, and also show a positive impact on nutritional quality. While treating the seed in sprout production, particularly, low-frequency high-intensity ultrasound (LF-HIU) is used, with a frequency range of 20–100 kHz (Liu, Zhou, et al., 2021). Ultrasound treatment can enhance the antioxidant properties and regulate cell division, but increased concentration may lead to cell death. Giving a moderate ultrasonic treatment shows a positive effect on the germination rate of spinach and cabbage seeds, highlighting its potential for seed enhancement (Huang et al., 2016). In food processing and preservation industries, ultrasound treatment is commonly used for various application like filtering, removing foam, cooking, drying, tenderizing meat, and also ensuring uniform mixing of liquids. This treatment has the potential to enhance the nutritional quality and germination rate and also ensure the safety of sprouts or seeds from microbial contamination (Liu, Li, et al., 2021). While giving this treatment in pumpkin seed, the technique resulted in maximizing the germination capacity and also reducing hydration time while keeping at a temperature of 45 °C for 10 min (Pacheco et al., 2025). The mechanism behind the improvement in germination rate due to ultrasonic treatment has been represented in Fig. 3. The ultrasound technique is an acoustic process technology, which has to be explored for its potential to improve its physicochemical and biochemical changes in cereal seeds, and also by increasing their bioavailability and digestibility by shows the positive impact on nutritional quality and bioactive compound and also more focusing about quality of cereal sprouts (Jaime et al., 2014). Dual-frequency ultrasound, which is 20 and 60 kHz with power 240 W, significantly improved soybean seed germination rate and has been found to enhance the metabolites and polyphenol compounds, including flavonoids, isoflavones, phenols, and coumarins in mung bean (Chen et al., 2023). Ultrasound can increase the antioxidant capacity, drive cell division, and restrain it with a medium dose. Additionally, some studies have shown that ultrasound treatment can enhance the rate of germination in cabbage and spinach seeds (Huang et al., 2016). Other research studies concluded that ultrasound treatment of seed has shown the great enhancement in germination rate, also enhancing seed growth and increasing the production of beneficial active compounds.
Fig. 3.
Schematic representation of the effect of ultrasonic treatment on the seed germination rate.
3.6. Ultra-violet light
Ultraviolet (UV) light treatment helps enhance the growth and germination rate of microgreen seed by exposing them to a particular wavelength of ultraviolet radiation, mainly in the case of UV-C (200-280 nm). This treatment positively sterilizes the seed by decreasing the rate of harmful pathogenic microorganisms and fungi on the surface of the seed while preventing the degradation of phytocompounds, which is generally caused during thermal treatments (Thongtip et al., 2024). This treatment helps to stimulate the plant metabolism, which may lead to an increased rate of germination, make plant growth faster, and enhance the production of bioactive compounds like antioxidants which improve the nutritional quality of the microgreen. The important light sources in microgreen and sprout germination are artificial light, including high-pressure sodium lamps, fluorescent lamps (FLs), and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), among others (Bantis et al., 2018). One of the most effective lights for photosynthesis is known as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), which ranges from 400 to 700 nm. Both blue and red light were found to critically affect the seed germination, as they are effectively absorbed by chlorophyll which is the main pigment for photosynthesis. Meanwhile, red light allows the growth of plants but also causes “red light syndrome” with prolonged exposure which leads to reduce the capacity of photosynthesis. Moreover, blue light maintains the chloroplast integrity, which help to increase the chlorophyll content and also enhances the photosynthetic capacity. The correct ratio of red to blue light can lead to improved photosynthesis and positively impact plant growth (Zhang et al., 2020). According to the research which were conducted on chia and alfalfa sprouts concluded that UV light treatment is a promising method to enhance the microbial quality for sprouting without affecting the germination rate, yield capacity in chia and alfalfa sprouts. It also positively reduces the native bacterial population growth, which depends on the seed type and physical characteristics, while also enhancing the antioxidant properties (García-Santiesteban et al., 2024). Other research reported that exposure of UV-A light can reduce the native mesophilic bacterial growth without affecting the seed-yielding capacity and germination rate (Dana et al., 2020). It helps in enhancing the nutritional quality of mustard microgreens by increasing bioactive compounds, such as phenols and carotenoids without affecting the plant growth while applying UV-A wavelengths for a longer time are particularly effective in promoting phytochemical and mineral accumulation (Brazaitytė et al., 2019). Studies on the Impact of Non-Thermal Treatments and Optimization of Conditions for Enhancing Microgreen Quality are represented in Table 2.
Table 2.
Summary of relevant studies on non-thermal treatments and optimization conditions for enhancing microgreen quality.
| Non thermal technique | Application in different microgreen Germination | Condition applied | Impact on microgreen | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Cold plasma | Wheat | Frequency: 20–70 khz Voltage: 14 kv Power supply 10–300 W Wheat seeds were exposed to a 50 W plasma treatment for 150 s. |
|
Burducea et al., 2023 |
| Mustard green | Cold plasma treatment (Voltages of 21 or 23 kv for 5 min Optimal voltage at 21 kv Seeds were germinated on vermiculite in a tray at 25 °C) |
|
Saengha et al., 2019 | |
| Foxtail millet | Cold plasma technique (Voltage 1 and 2 kV Time 1, 3 and 5 min Frequency-70-100 kHz) |
|
Monica et al., 2023 | |
| Pearl millet | Cold plasma treatment (Voltage 8 kV Frequency 6 kHz) |
|
Charu et al., 2024 | |
| 2 Pulsed Electromagnetic Field | Sunflower | Magnetic field treatment (Magnetic field induction value:- 0–500 μt Frequency:- 100 -200 Hz, Time require:- 1 s to 100 h Seed required:- 450 seed Seeds were hydrated for 4 h at 20 °C. Incubation time:- 20 °C for 2 days) |
|
Zaguła et al., 2021. |
| Garden cress seed | High-voltage (HV) signal source up to 10–18 kv peak value. HV probe and current prob. were used Vacuum mode (100 Pa) Electron accelerated beam:-15KV |
|
Motrescu et al., 2024 | |
| wheat | Magnetic field was applied:- 15, 30, and 45 min as pre-sowing 5, 10, and 15 min at seedlings 10, 20, and 30 min before harvest |
|
Katsenios et al., 2021 | |
| Foxtail millet | Manufacturer characteristics: 35–80 J/pulse energy, 1 × 10−6 s wave duration, 35–80 × 106 W wave power, Time require:- 60–90 min |
|
Ramesh et al., 2020 | |
| Buck wheat | 10 Hz frequency 30,007 intensity 30-min time duration Germination percentage of 92.92 Germination speed:- (27.52 %), Room temperature:- (20–22 °C), Relative humidity:- 35–50 % Electric component (E): 12.7 kv/m generator frequency 5.28 mhz EMF-treated seeds stored at room temperature (19–22 °C). |
|
Ivankov et al., 2021 | |
| 3 UV light treatments | Mung bean | UV-C light exposure:- 2, 5, and 10-min duration Wavelength of 251.4 nm Germination time 24 h at 25 °C. Power 15 W wavelength 251.4 nm |
|
Tripathi et al., 2024 |
| Flaxseeds | Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) treatment (Led type: blue/red (1:2 ratio) and green (10 %) leds Light duration: 16 h light, 8 h dark) |
|
Santin et al., 2022 | |
| 4 Plasma-activated water treatment | Mung bean | Voltage: 5 kv Frequency: 40 khz Power: 750 W Exposure Time: 15, 30, 60, 90s (PAW15, PAW30, PAW60, PAW90) |
|
Fan et al., 2020 |
| Flaxseed | Time:- 10–16 mint Concentration of the active substance (hydrogen peroxide) in process water from 300 to 700 mg/l Temperature of 17–21 °C, Germination process 2–7 days |
|
Kovaliova et al., 2023 | |
| Pearl millet | Time: 30 min Soaking time 24 h |
|
Mohandoss et al., 2024 | |
| 5 Ultrasonication | mungbean | Time duration:- 0, 15, and 20 min) Power 41 W 25 kHz of frequency Water bath Temp 25 ± 1 °C |
|
Miano et al., 2016 |
| Barley | Frequency of 20–60 khz Radiatio power 40 watts Time duratio 30–180 s |
|
Volkhonov et al., 2023 |
The combination of different non-thermal techniques can also be used to further improve the germination process and enhance the quality of microgreens. However, the combinations can have synergistic effects when used at optimum levels, otherwise it can also show antagonistic effects on germination potential and seed viability. In a study conducted on Eruca sativa seeds, where ultrasound was used as pre-sowing treatment, followed by postharvest LED light treatment, enhanced the synthesis of sulforaphane and antioxidants, showing the synergistic effect of two treatments. Ultrasound enhances the permeability of seed coat, and facilitates the penetration of UV-C light (Martínez-Zamora, Castillejo and Artés-Hernández, 2022). In another study conducted on the effect of ultrasound and microwave treatments on sorghum germination, it was observed that ultrasound and microwave treatments, when carried out independently, improved the seed germination, whereas the combination of these two treatments had a negative impact on germination, showing the antagonistic behaviour. This may be due to the intense effects of both the treatments which negatively affected the metabolic process causing the alterations in endogenous hormonal balance (Hassan, 2023).
4. Biological properties of microgreens
4.1. Antioxidant activity
Microgreens have high antioxidant properties, which are less in their mature counterparts. It consists of vitamins K, E, C, and beta carotenoids which help neutralize the free radical properties, also reduce oxidative stress, and have anti-inflammatory properties that reduce the rate of cancer and heart disease (Ghoora et al., 2020). The potential health benefits of microgreens are represented in Fig. 4. Microgreens of cereal, pulses, oilseed, and legumes also contain unique compounds, including glucosinolates, lutein, and vitamin K, which contribute to brain health, heart health, and cognitive support (Sharma, Shree, et al., 2022). Their nutrient concentration, sometimes up to forty times higher than mature plants, makes them a powerful addition to a balanced diet. Human health relies on micronutrients, especially vitamin C and antioxidants, which must be obtained from food due to the body's inability to produce them. Regular intake of these nutrients can reduce the risk of chronic diseases, but their availability varies in food sources (Tallei et al., 2024). Enhancing crops with antioxidants, minerals, or biofortification can make nutrient levels more consistent, as seen with microgreens like lettuce and basil, which can be enriched to boost antioxidant capacity and nutritional value. Microgreens are rich in phytochemicals such as flavonoids, which play a significant role in early-stage prostate and breast protection. They help regulate estrogen-responsive genes, suppress trefoil factor 1 and cathepsin-D, and activate tumor suppressor genes, supporting their potential health benefits (Tomas et al., 2021). The study shows that microgreens possess significant antioxidant activity due to high levels of phenolics, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, and active antioxidant enzymes. These compounds effectively scavenge free radicals, reduce oxidative stress, and enhance the microgreens' health-promoting properties. This antioxidant activity shows higher health benefits, including reduced chronic heart disease (Dhaka et al., 2023). Another study on two different varieties of wheat microgreen concluded that “Kose and Kirik” wheat landraces possess high antioxidant activity, largely due to elevated levels of anthocyanins, phenolics, and flavonoids, which contribute to enhanced free radical scavenging abilities. Kirik, consisting of high chlorophyll and carotenoid content shows a significant effect on antioxidant potential, while Kose has comparatively lower pigment values (Altuner et al., 2021).
Fig. 4.
Diagrammatic representation of potential health benefits of microgreens.
4.2. Anti-diabetic properties
Microgreens exhibit promising antidiabetic properties because of its rich concentration of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and antioxidants, which help reduce blood glucose levels. These compounds inhibit carbohydrate-digesting enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase, slowing glucose absorption and preventing blood sugar spikes (Aly et al., 2020). Additionally, their antioxidant properties combat oxidative stress, which is closely linked to insulin resistance and diabetes complications, making microgreens beneficial in diabetes management and prevention. Thus, the consumption of microgreens can be an effective dietary strategy to support blood sugar management, improve insulin function, and potentially decrease the risk of diabetes-related complications (Jayaraman & Ramasamy, 2024). According to the study, researchers reported that coriander microgreens possess strong antidiabetic properties, as indicated by higher α-amylase enzyme inhibition and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) compared to mature leaves (Sehrish et al., 2023). The ethanolic extract of microgreens contained higher levels of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, phenols, and proteins, which contribute to their antidiabetic and antioxidant activities. This research shared a potential of coriander microgreens as functional foods with promising antidiabetic effects for dietary use (Dhakshayani & Alias, 2022). According to another study on barnyard millet the antidiabetic potential of barnyard millet microgreens, showing they contain high levels of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, that enhance their antioxidant and antidiabetic efficacy compared to sprouts. The microgreens' phytochemicals inhibit enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase, slowing glucose absorption and helping manage blood sugar levels, validating millet microgreens as a valuable functional food for diabetes prevention and management (Durairajan et al., 2024).
4.3. Anti-obesity
Microgreens possess anti-obesity potential due to their high levels of antioxidants, polyphenols, and other bioactive compounds, which can inhibit pancreatic lipase, an enzyme involved in fat digestion and absorption. While reduction in the activity of lipase microgreen helps in limiting the absorption of fat in the body (Šola, Poljuha, Pavičić, Jurinjak Tušek, & Šamec, 2025). Additionally, flavonoids and amino acids improve the metabolic process in microgreens and also make a good option for weight management and obesity prevention strategies. These antioxidants support insulin sensitivity, further improving metabolism regulation and preventing excess fat accumulation. The high antioxidant and enzyme-inhibiting properties of microgreens make them a beneficial dietary component in preventing obesity and related metabolic disorders (Sehrish et al., 2023). Studies reported that Microgreens and sprouts show potential anti-obesity effects due to their strong antioxidant properties and ability to inhibit pancreatic lipase activity, which plays a role in fat absorption. Their polyphenol content and bioactive compounds also contribute to their enzyme-inhibitory effects, potentially aiding in weight management. These findings highlight their functional benefits, suggesting that including microgreens and sprouts in the diet could support anti-obesity strategies (Wojdyło et al., 2020).
4.4. Anti cholinergic effect
Anticholinergic effect means a potential to inhibit cholinergic receptor, particularly in case of acetylcholine receptor, it also play a major role in peripheral and central nervous system (Frąszczak et al., 2024). The positive effect is due to the availability of bioactive compounds including polyphenol, flavonoids and alkaloids present in the microgreen that connect with the receptor and influence the neurotransmission. Acetylcholine is one of the major key transmitters in the nervous system which is directly responsible for transmitting the signal between nerve cells, generally in case of learning (memory and muscles activation). When acetylcholine action is inhibited, the muscle contraction will be reduced and the motion in the gastrointestinal track will be lowered and the cognitive functions (Podsędek et al., 2024). Some studies mention that various plant based food incorporated with microgreen having mild anticholinergic properties. These effect shows positive impact in certain therapeutic benefits including relaxing muscle during irritable bowel syndrome. Moreover, these microgreens having mild anticholinergic activity can relax bladder muscles and can be beneficial in overactive bladder symptoms (Wojdyło, Nowicka, Tkacz and Turkiewicz, 2020).
5. Application of microgreens in functional food
Several studies have reported the importance of microgreens as functional food which help to balance or enhance nutritional value and also promotes good health. Microgreens offer several health benefits including anticarcinogenic effects and antioxidants property, as in the case of Capsicum sativum which shows strong antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties and also helps to support immune function, reduce inflammation, and combat oxidative stress (Rizvi et al., 2023). Microgreen plays a vital role in promoting good health and their quality makes them a valuable product that can be introduced in our day-to-day life. Its nutritional factor and anti-inflammatory properties help in preventing chronic heart disease and enhancing overall well-being. Growing nutrient-dense microgreens in space is achievable due to their rapid growth and high nutritional value. Research on astronauts and the adaptability of human life in space supports the feasibility of cultivating microgreens in space environments (Kyriacou et al., 2019). The nutritional composition including magnesium, and calcium help in maintaining chronic heart diseases (CHD). These studies also mention that microgreens having the potential to prevent from cancer, owing to compounds like isothiocyanate which help reduce the risk of cancer (Bhabani et al., 2024). According to the researcher report, sulforaphane helps in building the mechanism that protects the body by activating antioxidant enzymes and also preventing cells from damage. While microgreens are enriched with antioxidant properties and help reduce the risk of CVD, CHD, and diabetes and also prevent from cancer, their properties neutralize free radicals and prevent cellular damage (Cascajosa-Lira et al., 2024). In the last few years, several studies were conducted on germinated grain-based products as mentioned in Table 3, which have been developed or introduced in the market globally. Moreover, there is an increased production of sprouted grain products by using nonthermal techniques. Growing microgreens in high-altitude and remote areas helps mitigate the lack of fresh vegetables, where transportation challenges can significantly impact nutritional availability (Bhaswant et al., 2023). Studies have reported that innovative approaches help to enhance the nutritional value of a product like bread by adding supplementing flour with sprouted wheat powder, which makes it rich in nutritional quality having bioactive compounds including phytochemical, also help in reducing glycosides phospholipid and also the low molecule weight peptide (Marti, Cardone, Pagani, & Casiraghi, 2018). Microgreens are low-calorie, nutrient-dense foods with potential health benefits, particularly in preventing inflammatory autoimmune disorders. However, challenges such as pathogenic resistance, environmental stress, and gaps in production, harvest, and storage technologies need further research to fully realize their potential in combating chronic metabolic diseases (Paraschivu et al., 2021).
Table 3.
Application of microgreens in different food systems.
|
Type of product |
Type of microgreen | Reference | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bakery and confectionary | ||||
| Gluten-free eggless muffins | wheatgrass and mung bean microgreens | Firmness, chewiness, and gumminess were increased Rich in protein anti-oxidants, dietary fiber, phenolic and flavonoid contents. Control muffins lacked additional nutritional benefits and softness. 2 % Wheatgrass powder incorporated muffins shows higher sensory score. Muffins got lower acceptability scores and higher bitterness for MP incorporated samples. |
Kaur et al., 2022 | |
| Muffin | Wheatgrass, fenugreek and basil microgreen powder | Decreased baking losses High in health-promoting phenolics like ferulic, chlorogenic, and caffeic acid. Sensory score of Microgreen juice powder incorporated muffins was acceptable and satisfactory. |
Kumar & Singh, 2024 | |
| Gluten-free cakes | Sunflower microgreen | Higher antioxidant properties than control sample. Higher firmness and chewiness. High desirability rate then control sample. Consumers found it acceptable to substitute up to 12 % of the ingredients with Sunflower microgreen powder. Rich in nutritional values. |
Mansouri et al., 2024 | |
| Bread | Pea microgreen enrich bread | Volume reduced by 7–15 % compared with control. No effect on breadcrumb texture or porosity. Flavonoid content were retained. Minimal physical characteristics impact. The control bread lacked volume and consistency. |
Klopsch et al., 2018 | |
| Gluten free crackers | Anethum graveolens L. microgreen with chickpea and pea | Rich in protein, fiber, and micronutrients, gluten-free, and low in glycemic index. High consumer acceptance. Reduce minimal microbial activity, and had an extended shelf-life The highest score was obtained by the variation A2(Anethum graveolens L. microgreen cracker) which had overall acceptability of 8.79 ± 0.45, which was higher than control crackers |
Keerthana & Subaratinam, 2023 | |
| Pasta | Buckwheat Microgreens | Positively affect the nutritional quality. Lowest cooking loss. Nutrient-dense and high antioxidant activity Pasta with 10 % of microgreens and 20 % of sprouts shows the highest sensory score compared to other samples |
Kalinová & Nojeem, 2023 | |
| Functional beverage | ||||
| Microgreen-based functional beverage (fenugreek, kinnow mandarin and aloe vera) |
Fenugreek microgreen | Good source of beta-carotene, phenols, and antioxidants as compared to mature leaves. Lower moisture content compared to individual components. Showed higher values for reducing power, metal chelation activity, and free radical scavenging compared to the individual ingredients. Juice blend acceptability were decreased upto 2.5 % due to its dark green color Fenugreek had an interactive significant effect on the consistency and mouthfeel of the juice blend. |
Sharma et al., 2020 | |
| Microgreen juice | Broccoli, Amaranth, and Red Beet Microgreen | Microgreen juices demonstrated strong antioxidant activity (ABTS• + scavenging and FRAP) Higher functional properties compare to the control juice sample. The overall quality of the microgreen juices was rated 3.5 to 4.5 points. |
Belošević et al., 2024 | |
| Premix powder | ||||
| Ready-To-Serve Chutney Powder | Fenugreek, flaxseed, green gram, horse gram and mustard seeds microgreen | Best with overall acceptability Rich in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory property The overall acceptability score of green gram is 4.36, horse gram is 3.9, mustard seeds is 3.34, fenugreek is 3.3 and that of flaxseed is 2.8. Maximum acceptability score were obtained by green gram with is 4.3 compared with other sample. |
Abraham & Vijayan, 2022 | |
| Fenugreek Microgreens Chutney Powders | Fenugreek Microgreen | More preferred compared to mature greens. No growth of bacteria and mould observed. Highest acceptability index scores Incorporation of 5 % fenugreek microgreen powder shows highest score which is (93.70 %) compare with other formulation. |
Devi et al., 2023 | |
| Premix microgreen powder | Mustard, spinach, safflower, fenugreek and amaranth | Nutrient-Rich High antioxidant Capacity Prolonged shelf life through drying The highest acceptability index scores were obtained for 5 % microgreens incorporated in chutney Respondents (93 %) preferred better than regular chutney powder |
Reema, 2023 | |
| Frozen product | ||||
| Frozen kebab | Fenugreek and mustard microgreen | High nutritional composition Higher overall acceptability compared with the control sample (soya keema 100 %) The sample incorporated with 20 % germinated brown rice, 10 % fenugreek microgreens, 10 % mustard microgreens scored highest overall acceptability which is (8.02) as compared to other samples |
Munde et al., 2021 | |
6. Challenges and future work
The application of non-thermal techniques for the development of microgreens faces various challenges, involving standardization of treatment parameters and their effect on different seed characteristics, requiring precise optimization of intensity, duration, and frequency. Cost efficiency and scalability always show significant barriers, generally for small-scale producers. Moreover, widespread adoption is inhibited by consumer perception and regulatory approval. There are additional technological challenges when integrating non-thermal techniques into the current farming infrastructure. However, the future scope of these technologies is promising, with prospects for efficiency-boosting optimization and, integration of combination technologies like plasma and ultrasound, and sustainability developments. While research into nutritional enhancement may result in value-added products, real-time monitoring and automation using AI and smart sensors can further improve process management. Increasing market acceptance and industry adoption will be greatly aided by the establishment of regulatory frameworks and consumer awareness. In the upcoming years, non-thermal treatments could greatly improve the sustainability, safety, and quality of microgreen production with more research and development. With continued research and innovation, non-thermal treatments have the potential to significantly enhance the quality, safety, and sustainability of microgreen production in the coming years. Future research can be focused to identify the molecular, physiological, and biochemical responses linked to elucidate the mechanism of secondary metabolites biosynthesis and light signal pathways, with the objective remains to identify optimum spectral, intensity, and photoperiod combinations that can be applied for improving the functional quality of microgreens. Hygiene and safety remain a critical parameter for the development of ready-to-eat packaged microgreens, and the expansion of industrial microgreens production. Further research is needed to examine the effectiveness of various pre and post-processing techniques on quality and shelf-life, while there is a need for effective sanitizers alternative to sodium hypochlorite. Postharvest handling strategies focusing on controlled storage conditions, innovative packaging technologies, and alternative sanitation methods are crucial to ensuring extended shelf-life and microbial safety of microgreens. Collaboration between researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers will be key in addressing these challenges and unlocking the full potential of non-thermal treatments in microgreen production. Developing effective non-thermal treatment strategies that are both scalable and cost-efficient will require interdisciplinary research, integrating advances in plant physiology, food engineering, and automation. By combining precision agriculture technologies with non-thermal treatments, future microgreen production systems can be more resilient, sustainable, and capable of meeting increasing consumer demands for fresh, safe, and nutritious products.
7. Conclusion
Microgreens are gaining popularity as a nutritionally rich food with potential health benefits, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. The microgreens market can be increased by addressing some of the challenges like yield, spoilage, and nutritional enhancement. Several pre-treatments can be applied to increase the growth, yield, and reduce the microbial spoilage. Including environmental and eco-friendly techniques such as novel non-thermal techniques, and replacing the chemical fertilizers with organic alternatives can further enhance the nutritional quality and sustainable production of microgreens. While comparing all the non-thermal techniques, pulse electric field, plasma, and ultrasound treatment were found to have a higher impactful change in the growth and production of microgreen promoting higher germination rate and phytochemical compositions. Thus, non-thermal processing can be effectively used to improve the germination of seeds and enhance the nutritional and bioactive profile of microgreens, and prevent microbial spoilage. Microgreens have dense bioactive compounds which make them a valuable functional food ingredient and thus provides several health benefits. Microgreens from different seeds offer potential health benefits due to the variations in their nutritional compositions. Microgreens can be further explored for their potential food applications to increase their market value. Moreover, detailed studies are required to be conducted for optimization of pre-processing treatments to standardize the procedures for commercialization. Further studies can be carried out to study the effect of the combination of different techniques on seed germination.
Author's contribution
Mansi Rawat: Data curation, Writing original draft; Arun Kumar: Visualization, Reviewing and editing; Sanjay Kumar: Reviewing and editing, Validation; Ravneet Kaur: Conceptualization, Supervision, Reviewing and editing.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mansi Rawat: Writing – original draft, Data curation. Arun Kumar: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Sanjay Kumar: Writing – review & editing, Validation. Ravneet Kaur: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization.
Ethics statement
Ethics approval was not required for this research.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Footnotes
This article is part of a Special issue entitled: ‘IFPFS 2024’ published in Food Chemistry: X.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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