TABLE 1.

Comprehensive analysis of 3D printing technologies in orthopedic applications.

Technology	Process parameters	Key materials	Technical ratings*	Clinical applications	Key features
FDM	Temperature: 180–250°C Layer height: 0.1–0.3 mm	PLA, PETG, ABS, PCL	Accuracy: 3/5 Resolution: 2/5 Surface: 2/5 Usability: 5/5	Surgical guides External fixators Educational models	(+) Cost-effective, easy operation (−) Limited detail, low precision
SLA	Layer resolution: 25–100 μm Cure time: 1–2 s/layer	Photopolymer resins	Accuracy: 5/5 Resolution: 5/5 Surface: 5/5 Usability: 5/5	Anatomical models Custom guides Surgical templates	(+) High precision, smooth finish (−) UV sensitivity, limited strength
SLS/DMLS	Laser power: 100–200 W Layer height: 20–40 μm	Ti6Al4V, CoCr, Nylon	Accuracy: 5/5 Resolution: 4/5 Surface: 4/5 Usability: 4/5	Patient implants Fixation devices Custom instruments	(+) High strength, durable (−) High cost, slower speed

Ratings are derived from a literature review of technical characteristics, primarily based on Beredjiklian et al. (23) and Formlabs (9), reflecting relative performance in accuracy, resolution, surface quality, and usability for orthopedic applications. FDM, fused deposition modeling; SLA, stereolithography; SLS, selective laser sintering; DMLS, direct metal laser sintering; PLA, polylactic acid; PETG, polyethylene terephthalate glycol; ABS, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; PCL, polycaprolactone; Ti6Al4V, titanium-6 aluminum-4 vanadium alloy; CoCr, cobalt-chromium alloy.

*Ratings based on scale of 1–5, where 1 = poor and 5 = excellent.