Table 2.
Comprehensive Histological, Genetic, and Epigenetic Biomarkers
| First author/s, year | Biomarker | Marker type | Diagnostic or prognostic utility | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Popat S et al., 2005 | Microsatellite Instability (MSI) | Genetic | Indicates better prognosis and resistance to monotherapy with fluoropyrimidines; associated with immune infiltration and better survival outcomes. | 41 |
| Zhu G et al., 2021 - Yamashita S et al., 2028 | KRAS/NRAS | Genetic | Associated with poor prognosis; predicts resistance to anti-EGFR therapies; frequent in metastatic colorectal cancer. | 45, 47 |
| Tabernero J et al., 2021 | BRAF V600E | Genetic | Linked to high-grade tumors with poor prognosis; prevalent in right-sided tumors and older patients. | 51 |
| Tran B et al., 2011 | Invasion of Lymph Nodes | Histological | Predicts recurrence risk and poor outcomes; reflects aggressive local invasion. | 69 |
| Liao X et al., 2012 | PIK3CA | Genetic | Associated with poor prognosis; mutations in exons 9 and 20 predict worse survival; aspirin use may improve outcomes. | 53 |
| Fakih M et al., 2024 | KRAS G12C | Genetic | Predicts response to therapies targeting KRAS mutations; improved progression-free survival with targeted therapy combinations. | 46 |
| Zhang L et al., 2017 - Liang J et al., 2013 | APC Mutation | Genetic | Essential in tumor progression; linked to instability in WNT signaling pathway; predictive of worse outcomes in advanced disease. | 38, 39 |
| Wright M et al., 2017 | Hypermethylation (MLH1) | Epigenetic | Correlates with microsatellite instability; better prognosis in tumors with hypermethylation of MLH1 promoter. | 62 |
| Hur K et al., 2014 | Hypomethylation (LINE-1) | Epigenetic | Linked to aggressive tumor behavior and poor prognosis; found in advanced colorectal cancer. | 66 |
| Ilie-Petrov et al., 2023 | CDX2 | Histological/Epigenetic | Expression correlates with better survival; loss linked to tumor progression and worse outcomes. | 68 |
The table on histological markers highlights their critical role in colorectal cancer (CRC) diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment planning. It includes key factors such as tumor differentiation grade, depth of submucosal invasion, lymph node involvement, and specific molecular markers like cytokeratins (e.g., CK20). Additionally, markers like Ki-67, p16, and p21 provide insights into tumor proliferation and aggressiveness, guiding risk stratification and therapeutic strategies.