The impact of environmental serious game on pro-environmental behavior through environmental psychological ownership and environmental self-efficacy

Abstract

Environmental serious games, propelled by rapid information technology development, represent a novel intervention in the environmental sector. The study seeks to investigate how environmental serious games influence pro-environmental behavior while examining the mediating roles of environmental psychological ownership and environmental self-efficacy. Utilizing literature review and theoretical derivation, the study establishes a research framework and employs questionnaire surveys and field methods to analyze the relationships between environmental serious games, pro-environmental behavior, environmental psychological ownership, and environmental self-efficacy. The findings demonstrate that environmental serious games effectively enhance public awareness and participation in environmental protection efforts. Environmental psychological ownership and environmental self-efficacy serve as mediators between gaming experiences and environmental behaviors. More specifically, games enhance players’ sense of environmental psychological ownership and environmental self-efficacy, consequently promoting more active environmental behaviors. These findings hold significant implications for the design and promotion of environmental serious games. They reveal the significant potential of games in enhancing public awareness and facilitating environmental behaviors, providing new avenues for environmental protection. Additionally, the study underscores the critical roles of environmental psychological ownership and environmental self-efficacy in game interventions, offering a theoretical foundation and guidance for future game design and evaluation. Furthermore, the findings provide insights into areas such as environmental education, policy development, and public management practices.

Introduction

The intensification of the global environmental crisis has led to a series of severe ecological problems, including increased environmental pollution, a sharp decline in biodiversity, and intensified soil erosion. These issues pose significant threats to the stability of ecosystems and the sustainable development of humanity. In response to this global challenge, governments, environmental organizations, and the public worldwide are actively promoting the adoption of sustainable lifestyles in an effort to achieve environmental sustainability^1–3. In this context, pro-environmental behavior, as an active response by individuals to environmental issues, has become a critical factor in driving societal sustainability transitions and mitigating environmental crises^4,5. However, in complex societal settings, effectively promoting and maintaining long-term pro-environmental behavior remains one of the central challenges in the field of environmental governance.

To address this challenge, researchers in environmental psychology and behavioral science have proposed various intervention strategies aimed at encouraging individuals to adopt and sustain pro-environmental behaviors^6,7. Among these strategies, environmental serious games have emerged as a promising tool for fostering behavioral change. Unlike traditional entertainment games, environmental serious games are specifically designed to promote learning and behavioral transformation through game mechanics⁸. Leveraging the rapid advancement of information technology, environmental serious games have evolved into powerful tools capable of inducing positive changes in individuals at cognitive, emotional, and behavioral levels. In the environmental domain, environmental serious games offer unique advantages by simulating real-world environmental issues, providing immediate feedback, and incorporating reward mechanisms. Through their interactivity and engagement, these games not only raise public environmental awareness but also effectively facilitate the transformation and practice of pro-environmental behaviors⁹. For instance, projects such as “Ant Forest” and “Carbon Island” have significantly enhanced public environmental participation through innovative engagement mechanisms¹⁰. These successes highlight the potential of environmental serious games as a novel and scalable approach to environmental behavior intervention. Despite their promise, environmental serious games remain an understudied area in the context of pro-environmental behavior. Their relatively short development history and the predominant focus of existing research on the negative effects of gaming have left critical gaps in understanding their effectiveness, mechanisms, and long-term impacts. Moreover, most studies have been constrained by single-mechanism frameworks, lacking a systematic exploration of the multiple pathways through which environmental serious games may influence behavior.

The behavioral spillover effect theory provides an effective lens for understanding the dynamic changes in pro-environmental behavior. This theory suggests that an individual’ s engagement in a particular pro-environmental behavior may trigger psychological changes, thereby facilitating the adoption of other related environmental behaviors^11,12. Most existing studies focus on spillover effects related to traditional offline behaviors, such as household energy conservation and green consumption¹³. However, research on spillover effects in digital contexts, particularly through the mechanism of environmental serious games fostering cross-domain behavioral spillover, remains an emerging area of study¹⁴.

This study seeks to address these gaps by investigating how environmental serious games can promote pro-environmental behavior through the enhancement of environmental self-efficacy and psychological ownership. Specifically, it examines whether participation in environmental serious games can bridge the gap between virtual and real-world actions, fostering spillover effects that extend beyond the game environment. By integrating cognitive and emotional mechanisms, this research not only extends the application of behavioral spillover effect theory to digital contexts but also introduces a multi-mechanism analytical framework to deepen our understanding of the dynamic processes underlying pro-environmental behavior. The findings of this study hold significant theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, they contribute to the growing body of literature on environmental serious games and behavioral spillover effects, offering new insights into the mechanisms that drive pro-environmental behavior in digital environments. Practically, the study provides actionable recommendations for optimizing the design of environmental serious games, informing policy formulation, and guiding the development of innovative environmental behavior interventions. By bridging the gap between virtual engagement and real-world action, this research aims to contribute to global efforts in addressing environmental challenges and advancing sustainability goals.

Literature review and theoretical hypothesis

Environmental serious games and pro-environmental behavior

Games, defined as voluntary and purposeful activities conducted within a specified time and space according to established rules^15,16have a bidirectional impact on individual behavior. Research has shown that games can have both positive and negative effects. For example, pro-social video games can promote pro-social behaviors¹⁷, whereas violent video games may increase aggressive behaviors and suppress pro-social behaviors¹⁸. With advancements in technology, the rapid development of video and online games has led to the emergence of the concept of serious games. Serious games integrate knowledge, information, and skills into the game mechanics, enabling players to acquire relevant knowledge and master necessary skills while being entertained⁸.

In the field of environmental protection, Environmental Serious Games, as a subcategory of serious games, use gamification design to help users acquire environmental knowledge and raise their environmental awareness and cognition⁹. The primary goal of environmental serious games is to encourage players to adopt more environmentally friendly and sustainable behaviors in real life, thereby achieving tangible environmental benefits. In recent years, environmental serious games have garnered widespread attention from scholars both domestically and internationally as an effective environmental tool. Researchers have actively explored the antecedents of player participation in environmental serious games and their role in promoting pro-environmental behaviors^14,19. Studies have found that the entertainment value, hedonic motivation, perceived benefits, and normative motivation of environmental serious games are the key factors that attract players to continue their participation²⁰and that engagement with such games can significantly enhance players’ environmental knowledge, capabilities, and awareness of sustainability^21,22. However, despite these findings, there is limited research that delves into the actual impact of environmental serious games on player behavior, particularly whether they can effectively encourage players to engage in pro-environmental behaviors in real life.

Pro-environmental behavior, a form of prosocial behavior, refers to the positive actions taken by individuals to protect the environment across various domains²³. With the continuous development of environmental serious games, an increasing number of studies have explored their potential in raising players’ environmental awareness and promoting pro-environmental behaviors^24,25. However, existing research has predominantly focused on natural interactions in real-world environments, with less attention given to pro-environmental behaviors in virtual environments (such as in-game environmental tasks, tree planting, and other virtual environmental actions). Therefore, this study aims to explore whether environmental serious games can effectively promote pro-environmental behaviors within the virtual world, and further influence players’ pro-environmental actions in real life.

The Spillover Effect Theory provides a theoretical foundation for understanding the impact of environmental serious games on pro-environmental behavior. This theory posits that there are inherent linkages between an individual’ s behaviors, where past behaviors can causally influence future ones^11,26. Specifically, an individual’s behavior in one situation not only affects future behaviors in similar contexts but may also produce cross-contextual behavioral spillovers. For example, after engaging in pro-environmental behaviors, individuals may continue to act in ways that align with environmental goals to maintain behavioral consistency, thereby deriving environmental attitudes that influence their future behavior choices²⁷. This consistency mechanism plays an important role in fostering pro-environmental behavior.

Based on this theoretical framework, Environmental Serious Games offer a novel perspective on the spillover effects that promote pro-environmental behaviors. environmental serious games stimulate players to engage in pro-environmental behaviors within the virtual world through unique game mechanics. These behaviors, though initially limited to the virtual environment, may extend to real-life behaviors through behavioral spillover effects. Specifically, players interact in the game by performing virtual pro-environmental actions (such as waste collection and recycling), which activate their pro-environmental behavior schemas and, through an activation effect, encourage them to take similar actions in real life²⁸. Furthermore, Social Learning Theory suggests that individuals tend to unconsciously mimic the behaviors of others they observe, a process mediated by mirror neurons²⁹. In environmental serious games, players observe and imitate the pro-environmental actions of in-game characters, which further strengthens their identification with pro-environmental behaviors and facilitates the display of similar behaviors in real life. Self-perception Theory³⁰ also suggests that individuals infer their attitudes toward something by reflecting on their past actions, which then influences their future actions. By providing sustained exposure to pro-environmental behaviors in the game, environmental serious games not only enhance players’ environmental cognition but also stimulate their pro-environmental behaviors in real life.

Based on the above theoretical analysis, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H1

Environmental Serious Games significantly promotes players’ pro-environmental behaviors.

The mediating role of environmental self-efficacy

Environmental self-efficacy, as a key construct in environmental psychology, refers to an individual’s subjective assessment of their ability and effectiveness in improving environmental conditions and addressing environmental issues³¹. A substantial body of empirical research has shown that environmental self-efficacy is a critical cognitive variable in predicting and explaining pro-environmental behavior³². According to Social Cognitive Theory, when individuals hold positive beliefs about their capacity to tackle environmental problems, their willingness and likelihood to engage in pro-environmental behaviors significantly increase³³. In contrast, low levels of environmental self-efficacy often lead to a sense of helplessness regarding environmental issues, which reduces the individual’s proactivity and persistence in engaging in environmental protection behaviors³⁴. Therefore, environmental self-efficacy is considered a key psychological mechanism that influences decision-making related to pro-environmental behaviors.

Recent studies have further highlighted the mediating role of environmental self-efficacy in the behavioral spillover effect, demonstrating its significance across various contexts^12,35. For instance, Thøgersen and Noblet (2012) found that individuals who successfully implemented relatively simple pro-environmental behaviors were able to enhance their environmental self-efficacy, thus increasing the likelihood of adopting more challenging pro-environmental behaviors³⁶. Similarly, van der Werff et al. (2014) demonstrated that reminding individuals of their past pro-environmental behaviors could effectively trigger their environmental self-efficacy, further encouraging them to engage in other pro-environmental actions³⁷. This is because self-efficacy, as a psychological state closely tied to individual traits, is malleable and can be influenced by external factors such as learning, experience, and feedback³⁸. As a result, individuals who have engaged in multiple pro-environmental behaviors tend to enhance their cognitive awareness and experience in addressing environmental issues, thus increasing their environmental self-efficacy and making them more willing to undertake additional pro-environmental actions³⁷.

Despite the extensive research on environmental self-efficacy in the context of traditional pro-environmental behaviors, its role in the emerging intervention tool of environmental serious games remains underexplored. As an innovative behavioral intervention, environmental serious games simulate real-world environmental scenarios, offering immersive experiences and immediate feedback that effectively promote the internalization of environmental knowledge and the acquisition of environmental skills²¹. Existing studies indicate that such gamified learning experiences can significantly enhance players’ environmental self-efficacy, thereby influencing their pro-environmental decision-making in real life. For example, Fox et al. (2020) found through empirical research that players who participated in a virtual game focused on collecting river waste not only increased their environmental self-efficacy but also exhibited more proactive waste sorting behaviors in real life³⁹.

Building on the theoretical discussion and empirical evidence, this study proposes that environmental serious games can effectively promote pro-environmental behavior by enhancing players’ environmental self-efficacy. Specifically, environmental serious games can strengthen players’ awareness and recognition of environmental issues through scenario simulation mechanisms, while task design mechanisms enhance their ability to address environmental challenges, thereby boosting their confidence and self-assessment regarding environmental actions. These factors interact to increase players’ proactivity and problem-solving confidence when confronted with real-world environmental issues, motivating them to engage in more pro-environmental behaviors. Therefore, the study proposes the following hypothesis:

H2

Environmental self-efficacy serves as a mediator between environmental serious games and pro-environmental behavior.

Mediating role of environmental psychological ownership

Psychological Ownership refers to an individual’s sense of belonging and possession towards a particular object or its parts, manifesting as the mental state of perceiving that the object “belongs to oneself”⁴⁰. The formation of psychological ownership primarily relies on three key factors: a sense of control over the object, close interaction with it, and emotional or resource investment. As individuals accumulate experiences, invest time, and gain control during their interactions with an object, their sense of psychological ownership gradually strengthens. Research indicates that psychological ownership significantly influences individuals’ attitudes, values, and behaviors, enhancing emotional attachment to the object and motivating protective or maintenance actions⁴¹.

In the field of pro-environmental behavior, the role of psychological ownership has gradually emerged as a key area of research. For instance, a study by Peck et al. (2021) found that visitors who feel psychological ownership over lakes or parks are more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors, such as actively cleaning up litter or contributing to environmental donations⁴². This suggests that when individuals develop psychological ownership of natural resources or the environment, it not only deepens their emotional connection but also significantly enhances their intrinsic motivation to take protective actions. Similarly, research by Preston and Gelman (2020) indicates that individuals with psychological ownership over nature reserves are more inclined to participate in donation and volunteer activities to support and protect the area’s natural environment⁴³. These findings collectively highlight the crucial role of psychological ownership in pro-environmental behaviors, demonstrating that it not only strengthens emotional bonds between individuals and the object but also, through heightened responsibility and a sense of belonging, significantly increases individuals’ willingness to engage in and take actual protective actions. It is noteworthy that this influence arises not only from physical control or ownership but also from psychological dimensions such as a sense of belonging and responsibility. Studies show that individuals with psychological ownership typically exhibit a stronger sense of responsibility, willingly investing more time, energy, and resources to protect and improve the resource⁴⁴.

Against this backdrop, environmental serious games, as an immersive learning tool, may play a pivotal role in fostering environmental psychological ownership. Through interactive experiences, environmental serious games allow players to directly control resources, deeply engage in environmental protection tasks, and invest time in problem-solving within a virtual environment, simulating real-world environmental management scenarios. These game mechanisms not only enhance individuals’ perception and understanding of environmental issues but also strengthen their sense of belonging and responsibility toward both the virtual and real environments. Role-playing, decision-making, and management experiences within the game encourage players to develop similar psychological ownership in the real world, stimulating pro-environmental behaviors and fostering long-term commitment to environmental protection, ultimately driving large-scale pro-environmental actions.

H3

Environmental psychological ownership serves as a mediator between environmental serious games and pro-environmental behavior.

The conceptual model for this study is depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

The hypothetical model for this study.

Materials and methods

Study1

Study 1 utilized a cross-sectional data collection method to survey participants who had previously engaged in environmental serious games. This approach allowed for the rapid collection of data and provided a means to test the hypothesis⁴⁵. The primary aim was to examine the main hypothesis of the study: environmental serious games significantly promote players’ pro-environmental behavior (H1).

Participants

Data collection and survey distribution for this study were conducted through the Credamo platform, which hosts a large pool of millions of samples, effectively supporting large-scale data collection⁴⁶. A total of 100 participants were recruited for Study 1 through this online platform. After data cleaning, 6 participants were excluded for failing the attention-check questions, 13 for failing the game-related questions (i.e., not having played environmental serious games), and 10 for providing unreasonable average daily gaming durations (e.g., exceeding 24 h per day). Ultimately, 29 participants who provided incorrect answers or invalid responses were excluded, leaving 71 valid participants. Sample size calculations were performed using G*Power Version 3.1 software⁴⁷. An F-test was selected in G*Power, with a pre-set medium effect size (f² = 0.15), significance level (α = 0.05), and statistical power (1-β = 0.8). The results indicated that at least 55 participants were required for the study. With 71 participants included, this study met the sample size requirements. The sample exhibited a diverse distribution across various occupations. In terms of age, 63.38% of participants were aged between 21 and 30 years, and 18.31% were between 31 and 40 years old. In terms of gender, 64.7% of participants were male. Regarding educational level, 84% of the participants held a bachelor’s degree or higher.

Questionnaire design and study measures

Environmental serious game

The measurement of environmental serious games was adapted from the scales developed by Anderson and Dill (2000)⁴⁸, with modifications to suit the context of environmental serious games. The scale contains 7 items, assessing participants’ psychological and behavioral involvement in the games. Example items include “I feel deeply engaged in environmental serious games” and “I actively complete the game tasks every day.” The total score for the scale is calculated as the average score, with higher scores indicating greater engagement with environmental serious games. The scale uses a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree, α = 0.879).

Pro-environmental behavior

The measurement of pro-environmental behavior was based on a scale developed by Sun (2006)⁴⁹which includes 5 items. Example items include “I pay attention to environmental issues in real life” and “I am willing to participate in environmental charity activities.” This scale also uses a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree, α = 0.924).

Research design and procedure

Study 1 employed the “Credamo” platform to design and distribute the online questionnaire, inviting participants who had engaged in environmental serious games to take part in the survey. First, participants were asked whether they had previously participated in environmental serious games. Then, they were asked to report their cumulative playing time (measured in months) and their average daily playing time. Next, participants completed the environmental game engagement measurement, evaluating their psychological and behavioral involvement, as well as their familiarity with the game content. They also completed the pro-environmental behavior scale and attention-check items, and one attention check questions⁵⁰. The first question reads: “This question is to check whether you are answering attentively. Please select 1”. Finally, demographic information was collected from the participants. All measures used a 5-point Likert scale for responses.

Study2

Study 2 employed a longitudinal tracking design, which is suitable for examining the dynamic process of behavior change⁵¹. Using a pre- and post-test approach, the study aims to investigate how environmental serious games influence participants’ subsequent pro-environmental behavior, with a focus on the mediating effects of environmental self-efficacy and environmental psychological ownership.

Participants

Study 2 utilized the “Credamo” platform to design and distribute the initial questionnaire, successfully recruiting 380 new players of environmental serious games to participate in a continuous one-month follow-up survey. Due to data attrition, 6 participants failing to complete the survey consistently, and the removal of 4 participants who did not pass the attention check, the final merged pre- and post-test data resulted in a valid sample of 370 participants. Sample size calculations were performed using G*Power Version 3.1 software⁴⁷. An F-test was selected in G*Power, with a pre-set medium effect size (f² = 0.15), significance level (α = 0.05), and statistical power (1-β = 0.8). The results indicated that at least 77 participants were required for the study. With 370 participants included, this study met the sample size requirements. Among them, 200 (54.05%) were females and 170 (45.95%) were males. The majority of participants, accounting for 74.59%, were aged between 18 and 30 years old, and most were undergraduates (including junior college, 78.38%) and master’s degree holders (20.81%). Refer to Table 1 for details.

Table 1.

Results of frequency analysis.

Name	Options	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Cumulative percentage (%)
Gender	Female	200	54.05	54.05
	Male	170	45.95	100
Age	18–25	132	35.68	35.68
	26–30	144	38.92	74.59
	31–40	94	25.41	100
Academic qualifications	Bachelor	290	78.38	78.38
	Master	77	20.81	99.19
	Learned scholar	3	0.81	100
Total		370	100	100

Experimental materials

Experimental materials

“Carbon Island” is Tencent’s inaugural carbon-neutral-themed environmental serious games. It simulates the process of managing a carbon-neutral city, enabling players to construct a carbon-neutral future city during gameplay. Through this, it aims to promote the significance of “carbon neutrality” and raise awareness about environmental protection and sustainability. Additionally, the game fosters understanding and awareness of environmental issues and carbon neutrality principles.

Environmental serious games

Derived from Anderson and Dill (2006)⁴⁸ the scale was appropriately modified to suit the context of “Carbon Island”. It comprises 8 subjective questions assessing various aspects such as game engagement, task completion, game time, familiarity with the game rules, environmental concepts conveyed by the game, and knowledge level. A detailed description of the items can be found in Table 3.

Table 3.

Factor loading coefficients of the measurement model AVE, CR, cronbach’s α and Kmo.

Variables	Item wording	Factor loading	AVE	CR	Cronbach’s α	KMO	(M ± SD)
Environmental serious game	I actively go through the game tasks every day (such as signing in, retweeting, receiving rewards, etc.)	0.82	0.63	0.92	0.92	0.94	3.54 ± 0.94
	I feel very committed to the Carbon Island game	0.82
	I spent a lot of time playing the Carbon Island game	0.85
	I’m familiar with the rules of the Carbon Island game	0.83
	This game conveys a lot of environmental knowledge and ideas	0.81
	I think the game “Carbon Island” is interesting	0.83
	The game “Carbon Island” is very attractive to me	0.82
Environmental self-efficacy	I feel capable of participating in green low-carbon initiatives	0.87	0.65	0.84	0.84	0.73	3.55 ± 1.01
	I am sure I can engage in green and low-carbon behavior	0.89
	I am confident that I can implement green, low-carbon behavior	0.86
Environmental psychological ownership	I have a strong sense of ownership of the island in the game	0.89	0.67	0.86	0.85	0.73	3.51 ± 1.08
	I have a strong sense of ownership of the natural environment in which I now live	0.89
	I have a strong sense of ownership of the entire planet	0.86
Pro-environmental behavior	I am concerned about real-life environmental issues	0.74	0.56	0.94	0.94	0.97	4.12 ± 0.70
	I examine whether my behavior in life is in line with green and low-carbon requirements	0.75
	I am willing to implement green and low-carbon behaviors in real life	0.79
	I am willing to observe nature in real life	0.80
	I am willing to participate in environmental protection charity activities	0.77
	I would like to promote environmental protection to people around me	0.72
	I am willing to buy green and low-carbon products (e.g. reusable, recycled or reclaimed products)	0.76
	I am willing to separate garbage for recycling	0.77
	Participation in citizen meetings related to environmental issues (e.g., party and government meetings, citizen hearings, etc.)	0.79
	Write letters or meet with NPC deputies or government officials to express your views on environmental issues	0.79
	Report people or units that damage the environment to the relevant units	0.77
	Advise others not to violate environmental laws and regulations or inform them that their behavior has violated environmental laws and regulations	0.77
	Public expressions of support for environmental protection (e.g., forwarding environmental messages, environmental advocacy, voting, speaking, giving interviews, etc.)	0.78

Environmental self-efficacy

The measure of environmental self-efficacy utilized a scale developed by Earley et al. (1999)⁵² and Tabernero and Hernández (2011)⁵³, consisting of three questions.A detailed description of the items can be found in Table 3.

Environmental psychological ownership

The measurement of psychological ownership was based on the 3-question scale compiled by Peck and Shu (2018)⁵⁴, and was appropriately modified according to this study. A detailed description of the items can be found in Table 3.

Pro-environmental behavior

Pro-environmental behavior were assessed using the scale developed by Sun (2006)⁴⁹, encompassing both private and public domains, comprising thirteen questions.A detailed description of the items can be found in Table 3.

Research design and procedure

In Study 2, there are significant differences in the research design compared to Study 1. The key feature of this design is that all participants are individuals who have never previously interacted with similar environmental serious games. This design choice aims to ensure that participants’ behaviors and thought processes are not influenced by prior exposure to such games, allowing for more pure and reliable results in Study 2 and reducing bias introduced by prior game experience.

The experimental procedure is divided into several stages to ensure data rigor and the achievement of research objectives. First, prior to the formal commencement of the experiment, baseline measurements of participants’ current pro-environmental behaviors were taken. This step was designed to understand the level of participants’ environmental behavior before the experiment began, providing a reference point for subsequent analysis. The baseline measurements were conducted using a validated pro-environmental behavior scale to ensure the reliability and validity of the data.

Next, participants were asked to play an environmental serious game called “Carbon Island” during their free time over a one-month period. Given that the game has certain entry requirements, the researchers provided detailed instructions and rules before the experiment began to ensure that participants could quickly understand the game mechanics and engage effectively. The game link was distributed to participants via WeChat groups to facilitate easy access and participation.

To ensure the accuracy and completeness of the experimental data, the researchers designed a weekly self-report mechanism, requiring participants to report their game progress and send screenshots of their game levels. This mechanism not only helped researchers track participants’ involvement in the game in real time, but also ensured data continuity and reliability. Additionally, to enhance participants’ motivation and willingness to cooperate, researchers regularly distributed red envelopes (a popular feature in WeChat used to send small cash gifts, commonly for rewards or social engagement) through the WeChat group.

At the conclusion of the experiment, researchers re-measured participants’ pro-environmental behaviors and collected data on key variables, including the participants’ exposure to the environmental serious game, environmental self-efficacy, and environmental psychological ownership. The exposure to the environmental serious game reflects participants’ level of engagement with the game during the experiment, providing data support for analyzing the depth of game participation. Environmental self-efficacy measures participants’ belief in their own environmental abilities, exploring its mediating role between the game and pro-environmental behavior. Environmental psychological ownership assesses participants’ sense of belonging and control over the virtual environment, analyzing how it affects the formation and maintenance of pro-environmental behavior.

Through the analysis of these data, this study aims to uncover the underlying psychological mechanisms by which environmental serious games change individual pro-environmental behavior. Finally, participants will receive a gift valued at 50 RMB as a token of appreciation, to incentivize their participation and express gratitude for their contribution to the research.

Results

Study1

To examine the direct impact of environmental serious games on pro-environmental behavior, this study conducted regression analysis on the data. Controlling for demographic variables such as gender, age, and education level, environmental serious games were treated as the independent variable, while pro-environmental behavior served as the dependent variable in the regression analysis. The results revealed that environmental serious games had a significant positive predictive effect on pro-environmental behavior (β = 0.61, p < 0.001), supporting Hypothesis H1. Furthermore, environmental serious games explained 38% of the variance in pro-environmental behavior (R² = 0.38), indicating a moderate level of explanatory power of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The multicollinearity test (VIF = 1.09) further confirmed the robustness of the regression results. Detailed results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Results of the main effect tests.

Variables	Pro-environmental behavior
	β	SE	t	p	VIF
intercept	1.95	0.69	2.83	0.006	–
Environmental serious games	0.61	0.10	6.20	0.000	1.09
Age	− 0.15	0.10	− 1.48	0.142	1.07
Gender	− 0.02	0.17	− 0.13	0.893	1.01
Education level	− 0.05	0.11	0.50	0.614	1.01
R2	0.38
F	10.09

Study2

Reliability and validity

This study assessed the validity of the measurement model through reliability and validity metrics. Composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s α were employed to assess reliability, with a minimum acceptable value of 0.7 for both CR and Cronbach’s α for la-tent variables. As depicted in Table 3, both CR and Cronbach’s α values surpassed 0.7, indicating the model’s reliability.

A Harman single-factor test was conducted to examine common method bias, revealing that the first rotated factor explained 29.69% of the variance, below the 40% threshold, suggesting acceptable levels of common method bias unlikely to significantly impact conclusions. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed using Table 3. AVE values exceeding 0.5, CR values surpassing 0.8, and factor loading coefficients above 0.7 indicated satisfactory convergent validity. Analysis of Table 4 indicated that the square roots of AVEs of latent variables exceeded the correlation coefficients between the latent variables and others, affirming good discriminant validity. Refer to Table 4 for more details.

Table 4.

Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients of variables.

	M	SD	1	2	3	4
Environmental serious game	3.54	0.94	0.79
Environmental self-efficacy	3.55	1.09	0.40***	0.80
Environmental psychological ownership	3.51	1.08	0.39***	0.37***	0.82
Pro-environmental behavior	4.12	0.70	0.40***	0.38***	0.40**	0.75

The bold numbers on the diagonal represent the square root of the AVE *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

As shown in Table 4, this study employed Pearson’s correlation coefficient to analyze the relationships among the key variables. The results revealed significant positive correlations (p < 0.001) between environmental serious games, environmental self-efficacy, environmental psychological ownership, and pro-environmental behavior. These findings provide preliminary theoretical support for the subsequent mediation effect analysis.

Paired samples T-test

To examine the change in pro-environmental behavior, a paired samples T-test was conducted on the experimental data. The results revealed that, compared to pre-experiment levels, participants demonstrated a significant increase in pro-environmental behavior after engaging with the “Carbon Island” game for one month, with the difference being statistically significant (t = − 22.69, p < 0.001). This finding further supports Hypothesis H1, indicating that environmental serious games have a significant positive effect on enhancing individuals’ pro-environmental behaviors. see Table 5.

Table 5.

Results of paired t-test analysis.

Name	(M ± SD)		D-value	t	p
	Pre-test	Post-test
Pro-environmental behavior	3.59 ± 0.85	4.12 ± 0.70	− 0.53	− 22.69	0.000***

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Mediation effect analysis

This study utilized the SPSS macro PROCESS developed by Hayes (2022)⁵⁵ to examine the mediating roles of environmental self-efficacy and environmental psychological ownership in the relationship between environmental serious games and pro-environmental behavior, while controlling for demographic variables such as gender, age, and education level. The regression analysis results indicated the following: First, environmental serious games had a significant positive predictive effect on pro-environmental behavior (β = 0.31, p < 0.001). Second, environmental serious games significantly and positively influenced both environmental self-efficacy (β = 0.44, p < 0.001) and environmental psychological ownership (β = 0.45, p < 0.001). Third, environmental self-efficacy (β = 0.15, p < 0.001) and environmental psychological ownership (β = 0.16, p < 0.001) also significantly and positively predicted pro-environmental behavior. After introducing the mediating variables, the direct effect of environmental serious games on pro-environmental behavior remained significant (β = 0.17, p < 0.001), indicating the presence of partial mediation, as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Path diagram of the mediation model.

To further validate the robustness of the mediation effects, this study employed the bias-corrected nonparametric percentile Bootstrap method (with 5,000 resamples) for testing. The results demonstrated that the mediating effects of environmental self-efficacy and environmental psychological ownership were significant, with a total mediation effect value of 0.14. Specifically, the mediation effects were realized through two pathways: The first pathway, environmental serious game→environmental self-efficacy→pro-environmental behavior, had an indirect effect value of 0.06, with a Bootstrap 95% confidence interval of [0.03, 0.10], excluding zero, indicating a significant mediating role of environmental self-efficacy. The second pathway, environmental serious game→environmental psychological ownership→pro-environmental behavior, had an indirect effect value of 0.07, with a Bootstrap 95% confidence interval of [0.04, 0.11], excluding zero, indicating a significant mediating role of environmental psychological ownership. Detailed results are presented in Table 6.

Table 6.

The mediating effects.

Model effect	Effect size	SE	LLCI	ULCI	Proportion of effect (%)
Total effect	0.31	0.03	0.24	0.39	100
Direct effect	0.17	0.04	0.09	0.25	54.8
Total indirect effect	0.14	0.02	0.09	0.19	45.1
Environmental serious games→ environmental self-efficacy→ pro-environmental behavior	0.06	0.01	0.03	0.10	19.3
Environmental serious games → environmental psychological ownership → pro-environmental behavior	0.07	0.01	0.04	0.11	22.5

Discussion and conclusion

Main conclusions

Previous studies on the spillover effects of pro-environmental behaviors have primarily focused on actual behaviors such as energy conservation, green purchasing, environmentally-friendly travel, and waste recycling. However, there has been limited exploration of the spillover effects of environmental serious games within the gaming context. This study not only extends the perspective of pro-environmental behavior spillover research but also provides a new theoretical framework and practical pathway for promoting sustainable pro-environmental behaviors through gaming. Based on the theory of pro-environmental behavior spillover effects, this research systematically examines how environmental serious games influence players’ pro-environmental behaviors in real life through participation in virtual environments. The findings suggest that environmental serious games effectively bridge the gap between the virtual world and the real world, reducing cognitive dissonance in players’ behavioral practices, thereby enhancing behavioral consistency²⁷. This cognitive consistency facilitates the transfer of pro-environmental experiences gained within the game to real-life actions, promoting continued pro-environmental behavior and creating a positive feedback loop. This mechanism validates the effectiveness of environmental serious games as a novel tool for environmental public welfare.

Specifically, environmental serious games facilitate the acquisition of environmental knowledge and skills through clearly defined tasks and challenges within the virtual environment, allowing players to transform this knowledge into tangible actions in the real world^21,22. For example, the game guides players to complete tasks such as waste sorting and energy conservation, which not only significantly enhances players’ environmental awareness but also encourages them to take concrete pro-environmental actions in real life. Additionally, the highly immersive and interactive design of environmental serious games helps players gain a deeper understanding of the long-term value and practical significance of pro-environmental behaviors, thereby reinforcing their intrinsic motivation to engage in environmentally-friendly actions. By satisfying players’ entertainment needs, the game encourages more active participation in real-world environmental activities. Specifically, the game’s task setup provides players with a sense of achievement, enhancing their identification with and motivation for pro-environmental behaviors. The game’s real-time feedback mechanism allows players to intuitively perceive the direct impact of their actions, further boosting their confidence and persistence in implementing pro-environmental behaviors. By integrating the virtual environment with real-world actions, environmental serious games not only raise players’ environmental awareness but also promote the internalization of environmental values. The game’s reward system (e.g., earning points or virtual items by completing tasks) further motivates players to translate their in-game pro-environmental actions into real-life behaviors. Furthermore, the emotional connection players form with the virtual environment makes it easier for them to perceive their in-game environmental actions as part of their intrinsic values, thereby fostering the continuous practice of pro-environmental behavior in real life. This design not only strengthens players’ environmental motivation but also provides crucial support for the long-term maintenance of pro-environmental behaviors.

This study also explores, from both cognitive and emotional perspectives, the mediating roles of environmental psychological ownership and environmental self-efficacy in the spillover effects between environmental serious games and pro-environmental behaviors. First, environmental self-efficacy, which refers to individuals’ belief in their ability to effectively participate in environmental protection, has a significant impact on their pro-environmental behaviors^33,56. The study finds that environmental serious games significantly enhance players’ environmental self-efficacy by providing experiences and real-time feedback on environmental tasks. This increase in self-efficacy further boosts players’ confidence and motivation to address complex environmental tasks (e.g., waste sorting, water conservation) in real life^56,57.

Secondly, psychological ownership, an important emotional variable, plays a key role in the spillover effects of environmental serious games. Research shows that when players develop psychological ownership over the virtual environment or tasks in the game, their emotional resonance with environmental protection is significantly enhanced, which in turn motivates them to engage in more pro-environmental actions in real life⁵⁸. This emotional sense of ownership makes players more willing to invest time, energy, and resources into protecting the environment they “own,” thus promoting the long-term maintenance of pro-environmental behaviors.

Theoretical contributions

This study makes significant theoretical contributions in several aspects. First, by integrating the theory of pro-environmental behavior spillover effects, the research explores the role of environmental serious games in promoting pro-environmental behaviors, expanding the scope of existing research. Traditional studies have focused primarily on behavior changes following environmental education, public welfare activities, or policy interventions²⁶, while research on environmental serious games, as an emerging area, has been relatively limited. environmental serious games stimulate players’ environmental awareness through game mechanics and provide interactive and immersive experiences, leading to lasting behavioral impacts. Therefore, this study provides a new perspective for understanding pro-environmental behavior spillover effects.

Second, from both cognitive and emotional perspectives, this study systematically verifies the parallel mediating roles of environmental self-efficacy and psychological ownership in the relationship between environmental serious games and pro-environmental behavior. From a cognitive perspective, environmental self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in their ability to engage in environmental protection. environmental serious games, through relevant tasks and challenges, can effectively enhance players’ environmental self-efficacy, thus promoting their proactive practice of pro-environmental behaviors in real life³⁴. From an emotional perspective, psychological ownership, which refers to an individual’s sense of belonging and control over objects or environments, significantly increases one’s willingness to care for and protect these objects or environments⁴¹. In environmental serious games, players gradually develop psychological ownership over the virtual environment through task participation, and this emotional sense of ownership further motivates them to engage in more pro-environmental actions in real life. This study fills the research gap between environmental serious games and psychological ownership, providing theoretical support for the emotional drivers of environmental protection behavior.

Finally, this study employs a longitudinal tracking method, overcoming the limitations of static data analysis in traditional studies. Previous research often relied on cross-sectional data or short-term experiments, making it difficult to capture the dynamic process of behavior change. By tracking behaviors before and after participation in environmental serious games, this study offers clearer insights into the dynamic changes in spillover effects and their impact on pro-environmental behaviors. This dynamic data analysis approach provides more rigorous empirical support for spillover effect theory, enriching its application scenarios.

Practical implications

This study provides important managerial insights for environmental public welfare organizations, government departments, and the environmental industry, particularly in terms of using environmental serious games to promote pro-environmental behaviors. With the rapid development of digital technologies, environmental serious games, as an innovative environmental education tool, demonstrate enormous potential in raising public awareness of environmental protection and promoting behavioral change. Based on the findings of this study, the design of environmental serious games should strike an effective balance between educational and entertainment elements. By designing environmentally relevant tasks (e.g., waste sorting, energy conservation, water protection), games can not only enhance players’ environmental awareness but also assist them in performing these behaviors in real life. Additionally, game design should incorporate reward mechanisms linked to real-world pro-environmental actions, such as using game points or virtual currency to exchange for environmental products or services, which can further enhance players’ motivation to participate and sustain behavioral change.

On this basis, environmental public welfare organizations and government departments can cooperate with real-world public welfare projects and environmental enterprises to expand the social impact of environmental serious games. Through partnerships with well-known environmental organizations or enterprises, environmental serious games can leverage their brand effects and social reputation to enhance their outreach and influence. Moreover, the social features embedded in games can encourage players to interact and share environmental insights, creating a community effect that further stimulates widespread environmental action. Managers should recognize that psychological ownership, as one of the key factors driving long-term player engagement and behavioral change, can be significantly enhanced by providing players with a sense of control and belonging over the virtual environment in the game. For example, players can influence the environmental changes in the game through their decisions and actions, thereby increasing their sense of responsibility and participation. This “sense of ownership” can motivate players to view pro-environmental behaviors as part of their identity, leading to more proactive environmental actions in real life.

Furthermore, governments and the environmental industry should fully recognize the social value of environmental serious games and promote their development through policy support, financial investment, and other means. Governments can introduce policies to encourage the design and development of environmental games and support the integration of environmental serious games with public services and public welfare projects to drive innovation and application in this field. Through policy guidance and industry collaboration, environmental serious games are likely to become a vital tool in driving public behavior change and further advancing environmental protection efforts.

Research limitations

Although this study provides empirical insights into the impact of environmental serious games on pro-environmental behaviors based on the theory of pro-environmental behavior spillover effects, it inevitably has some limitations. First, certain key variables have not been included in the analysis. Future research may consider incorporating demographic variables such as gender, education level, income, and sample type. Existing research on environmental awareness and behavior suggests that these variables may result in significant differences in pro-environmental behaviors. Therefore, future studies could explore potential gender differences in the effects of environmental serious games, as well as how gender roles inside and outside the game affect these effects. Moreover, research involving broader societal samples (e.g., entrepreneurs, professional groups, and special populations) may offer more practical and targeted strategic recommendations.

Second, this study primarily investigates the individual-level determinants of pro-environmental behavior and does not address collective-level factors. However, addressing environmental crises requires joint efforts from both individuals and collectives. Future research can explore collective factors, such as descriptive norms.

Author contributions

Conceptualization, M H; methodology, M H and S S; validation, M H; formal analysis, M H; investigation, M H and S S; resources, M H and S S; data curation, M H; writing—original draft preparation, M H; writing—review and editing, J C; visualization, J C; supervision, J C; project administration, J C; funding acquisition, J C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by The Special Project for Rural Cadres Residency under the “Great Earth Thesis” program at Gui-zhou University of Finance and Economics in 2022(grant number :2023ZCGBA04).

Data availability

The Data generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

The data used in this study have been submitted and approved by the Guizhou university of finance and economics Ethics Committees on research involving humans. Informed consent was obtained from all participants of the study. This study followed the Declaration of Helsinki.