Comparison of motor performance in typically developing children engaged in gymnastics and classical ballet

Abstract

[Purpose] This study aimed to compare the motor skills of typically developing children with different movement experiences, specifically classical ballet and gymnastics. [Participants and Methods] The participants included 52 typically developing children aged 4–6 years (25 boys and 27 girls) from Kindergarten. The boys engaged in weekly gymnastics and girls engaged in weekly classical ballet under the guidance of specialized instructors. Motor skills were assessed using the 25-m run, tennis ball throw, double-leg continuous jump, and standing long jump tests incorporated in the motor skills test. Balance ability was evaluated using static standing tests with eyes open and closed on a firm floor and foam rubber pad, each for 30 s. The total locus length and circumferential area were calculated. [Results] The boys demonstrated significantly greater throwing distance in tennis ball throws and superior performance in the standing long jump than girls. In the balance test, girls exhibited greater stability than boys in the static standing with eyes open on firm as well as foam rubber pad conditions, as measured by the total locus length. In addition, girls in the following test conditions had smaller circumferential areas than boys: static standing with eyes open and closed on a firm floor and static standing with eyes closed on a foam rubber pad. [Conclusion] These findings suggest that early childhood motor skills vary according to the type of movement experienced.

INTRODUCTION

The motor skills of children in Japan have been in continuous decline since 1985, necessitating urgent preventive strategies due to the increased risk of accidents such as bone fractures in physical education and daily play¹⁾. In recent years, the decline in children’s fundamental motor skills (FMS) has been attributed to insufficient acquisition of fundamental movements commonly used in daily life, such as sitting, standing, walking, running, and rolling. This deficiency makes it difficult to ensure the intensity and volume of physical activity required to enhance physical fitness²⁾. Consequently, acquiring FMS during early childhood is crucial for promoting motor function development in late years and establishing a foundation for future physical fitness.

FMS in young children are classified into 36 types encompassing balancing (e.g., standing up, sitting up, rolling forward, crossing, hanging), locomoting (e.g., walking, running, jumping, leaping, climbing, descending, crawling, sliding), and object manipulation (e.g., holding, carrying, throwing, catching, rolling, kicking, stacking, pushing, pulling)³⁾. Efficient performance of FMS requires well-coordinated movements in which limb motions counterbalance postural sway⁴⁾. Bilateral limb movements, particularly those involving alternating coordination of the upper limbs during walking, contribute to trunk and pelvis rotation, which helps maintain postural sway⁵⁾. Nakamura et al. observed FMS development in preschool children and reported that they struggled to perform symmetrical arm swings while running, coordinate both arms while jumping, and rotate their upper bodies in throwing⁶⁾. These findings suggest that young children do not yet exhibit fully efficient FMS.

The guidelines for physical activity in early childhood recommend a minimum of 60 minutes of daily physical activity, and exposure to diverse movement patterns³⁾. Various physical activity interventions such as ball games, gymnastics, yoga, outdoor play, aerobic exercise, martial arts, and dance for nine-months period in preschoolers, have been reported to enhance motor skills, including running and jumping abilities⁷⁾. Additionally, engagement in activities such as playing with friends, dancing, running, jumping, biking, and skateboarding has been identified as a factor influencing motor development⁸⁾. A key component of FMS is balance ability, which relies on visual, somatosensory and vesitbular inputs^{9, 10)}. However, few studies have directly compared motor skills and balance ability based on specific type of physical activity practiced. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the motor and balance abilities of typically developing children engaged in gymnastics (boys) and classical ballet (girls) in a kindergarten. The hypothesis of this study was that young children’s motor and balance ability would vary by type of exercise.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

The participants were 78 typically developing children enrolled in T kindergarten, of whom 62 obtained parental consent to participate in the study (Table 1). The exclusion criteria included (1) children who were those unable to perform the tests due to injury or poor health, and (2) those who voluntarily declined to participate. Exclusion criteria included (1) children who were unable to perform the examination due to injury or illness, and (2) children who voluntarily declined to participate. Boys attended a weekly gymnastics class, while girls participated in a weekly classical ballet class, both led by specialized instructors. Each group had two recitals per year. The gymnastics class included flexibility exercises, mat exercises, bar exercises, and vaulting box training. The classical ballet class involved stretching, posture maintenance for balance and dancing to music.

Table 1. Basic characteristics.

	Total (N=52)	Boys (N=25)	Girls (N=27)
Age (years)	5.3 ± 0.6	5.2 ± 0.7	5.3 ± 0.6
Height (m)	1.10 ± 0.06	1.11 ± 0.06	1.10 ± 0.05
Weight (kg)	18.7 ± 2.4	18.6 ± 2.1	18.7 ± 2.6
BMI	15.3 ± 1.1	15.2 ± 1.1	15.5 ± 1.0

Mean ± SD, non-paired t-test, ns. BMI: body mass index.

The MKS motor skills test is the only test in Japan with a national standard for infants and consists of six items: 25-meter run, standing long jump, double-leg continuous jump, tennis ball throw, ball catch, and body support duration^{11, 12)}. In this study, motor skills were assessed using four tests from the MKS Motor Skills Test. 25-meter run: A 30-meter straight track (25 meters for running + 5 meters for deceleration) was set up, and the time taken to reach the 25-meter marks was recorded. Tennis ball throw: The longest distance (in cm) from the throwing line to the landing point was measured in 50 cm increments. Each participant throwed twice, with the longest distance recorded. Double-leg continuous jump: The test involved jumping over 10 blocks (each 10 cm wide, 10 cm high, and 20 cm long) spaced 50 cm apart over a total distance 4.5 meters. The time taken to reach the goal line was measured. Each participant jumped twice, with the fastest time recorded. Standing long jump: The longest distance (in cm) from the takeoff line to the landing point was recorded. Each participant jumped twice, with the longest jump recorded. Moter skill development was evaluated using age- and sex-based grading score (5-point scale: 1=below average, 3=standard. 5 above average).

Balance ability was measured using a Balance Function Meter UM-BAR II (Unimec Corporation, Fuchu, Tokyo, Japan) and a Balance Pad Airex Elite (Sakai Medical, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan). Static standing was tested under four conditions: Eyes Open a Firm Surface (EO), Eyes Closed a Firm Surface (EC), Eyes Open a Foam Surface F (EO), Eyes Closed a Foam Surface (FEC). Each trial lasted 30 s, and total locus length (TLL) (cm) and circumference area (CA) (cm²) were calculated.

Data were analyzed on 52 participants (25 boys, 27 girls) after excluding those who were absent or unable to complete the test. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS statistics 28.0 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). An independent t-test was used to compare boys and girls with a significance level set at p<0.05. This study was approved ty the Ethical Review Board of the Reiwa Health Sciences University (approval number: 22-037). Written and video-based explanations were provided to parents before obtaining their informed consent.

RESULTS

In the tennis ball throw, boys threw the ball significantly farther than the girls (p<0.05). Similarly, in the standing long jump, boys achieved significantly greater distance than the girls (p<0.01) (Table 2). In the balance test, girls exhibited significantly shorter TLL than boys under the EO (p<0.05) and FEO (p<0.05). Regarding the CA, girls demonstrated significantly smaller sway than boys under the EO (p<0.01), EC (p<0.01), and FEC (p<0.01) (Table 3).

Table 2. Motor function comparison of boys and girls.

	Total (N=52)	Boys (N=25)	Girls (N=27)	ES
25 m run (s)	6.9 ± 0.7	6.9 ± 0.7	7.0 ± 0.7	0.13
Score (point)	2.6 ± 0.9	2.6 ± 1.0	2.5 ± 0.9	0.13
Tennis ball throw (m)	6.0 ± 2.6	7.0 ± 3.0*	4.9 ± 1.5	0.42
Score (point)	3.1 ± 1.2	3.2 ± 1.3	3.0 ± 1.0	0.20
Standing jump (m)	99.4 ± 18.2	104.7 ± 18.2**	94.4 ± 17.0	0.58
Score (point)	3.1 ± 0.8	3.0 ± 0.7	3.1 ± 0.8	0.04
Continuous jumping (s)	6.2 ± 1.8	6.4 ± 2.1	6.1 ± 1.5	0.19
Score (point)	2.7 ± 0.9	2.6 ± 1.0	2.7 ± 0.8	0.19

Mean ± SD, non-paired t-test, **p<0.01, *p<0.05.

ES: Effect Size, d=0.20 ~small effect, d=0.50 ~medium effect, and d=0.80 ~large effect.

Table 3. Balance ability comparison of boys and girls.

	Total (N=52)	Boys (N=25)	Girls (N=27)	ES
Total locus length (cm)
EO	45.5 ± 11.5	50.3 ± 13.1	41.1 ± 8.1*	0.85
EC	56.8 ± 12.9	60.1 ± 13.6	53.8 ± 11.6	0.50
FEO	73.3 ± 22.2	79.8 ± 24.3	67.3 ± 18.6*	0.55
FEC	134.8 ± 44.1	147.0 ± 46.4	123.5 ± 39.3	0.59
Circumference area (cm2)
EO	2.5 ± 1.3	3.0 ± 1.5	2.0 ± 0.9**	0.78
EC	2.9 ± 1.3	3.5 ± 1.3	2.4 ± 1.1**	0.87
FEO	4.5 ± 3.6	5.2 ± 3.7	3.8 ± 3.7	0.35
FEC	10.2 ± 8.1	12.9 ± 8.5	7.7 ± 7.0**	0.64

Mean ± SD, non-paired t-test, **p<0.01, *p<0.05.

EO: eyes opened; EC: eyes closed; FEO: foam rubber EO; FEC: foam rubber EC; ES: effect size, d=0.20 ~small effect, d=0.50 ~medium effect, and d=0.80 ~large effect.

DISCUSSION

This study compared the motor and balance abilities of typically developing children who participated in either gymnastics or classical ballet classes. The results demonstrated that boys who engaged in gymnastics exhibited superior jumping and throwing abilities, whereas girls who participated in classical ballet displayed greater balance ability.

The gymnastics curriculum included mat exercises, bars exercises, and vaulting box activities which are designed to promote whole body coordination and power transmission. These exercises allow children to efficiently control their bodies while performing movements such as leaping over vaulting boxes, rolling on mats, and hanging from bars. Prior research has reported that gymnastics significantly enhances locomotor skills, such as backward walking, hopping height and moving sideways in young children¹³⁾. Additionally, studies have shown that throwing distance in children aged 7–9 is strongly associated with explosive power¹⁴⁾. These findings suggest that gymnastics experience plays a crucial role in developing body control and strength-related skills.

In contrast, classical ballet training emphasizes postural stability, balance control, and precision of movements. A systematic review reported that beginner ballet training improved balance ability, with higher levels of ballet experience leading to even greater balance performance¹⁵⁾. Furthermore, research has indicated that classical ballet dancers rely heavily on vision input for balance¹⁶⁾. It the present study, girls demonstrated shorter TLL in the EO and FEO conditions, suggesting that their ballet experience enhanced postural stability during eyes-open conditions. Classical ballet involves complex movements that require maintaining balance in unstable postures, as well as performing rotations and jumps within a narrows base of support¹⁶⁾. These factors are known to contribute to enhanced vestibular adaptation capacity¹⁷⁾. The necessity of executing rotational movements, such as jumps and turns, while maintaining an aesthetically refined posture may further enhance balance ability by refining somatosensory and vestibular processing.

This study examined the differences in motor and balance abilities among typically developing children (aged 4–6 years) based on their movement experiences in gymnastics and classical ballet. The results indicated that boys who participated in gymnastics demonstrated superior jumping and throwing abilities, whereas girls who engaged in classical ballet exhibited greater balance control. These findings suggest that early childhood motor skills develop differently depending on the type of physical activity practiced. However, several limitations must be considered. First, gender-based differences in motor development may have influenced the results, as boys and girls participated in different physical activities. Second, individual regular physical activity, exercise preferences and lifestyle factors were not accounted for, which may have affected performance outcomes. Future research should explore how various background factors influence motor development and conduct longitudinal studies to assess the long-term effects of early movement experiences.

These findings highlight the importance of providing diverse physical activity experiences in early childhood to promote well-rounded motor skill development.

Conference presentation

This study was presented at the 20th Japanese Society for Early Childhood Physical Education Conference.

Funding

This study was funded by the Ogata Memorial Science Foundation (Grant Number: R4-138). The funding organization had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, manuscript preparation, or decision to publish.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest associated with this study.