Table 2.

Summary of variables, descriptions, instruments, and psychometric properties.

Variable type	Variable name	Operational definition	Measurement instrument/source	Psychometric properties
Independent	VR training	- Immersive, scenario-based safety training - Included hazard recognition, emergency response, and decision-making - 3 sessions, 45 min each, over 1 week	Custom-designed VR scenarios validated by subject-matter experts.	Content validity ensured through expert review. Internal consistency is not applicable
Dependent	Safety knowledge	- Ability to recall and apply safety procedures	Adapted safety knowledge inventory (Smith et al., 2015)	Cronbach’s α = 0.85 (high reliability)
Dependent	Risk perception	- Recognition and evaluation of workplace hazards	Risk perception scale (Jones & King, 2012)	Cronbach’s α = 0.92 (excellent reliability)
Dependent	Self-efficacy	- Confidence in performing safety-related tasks	General self-efficacy scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995)	Cronbach’s α = 0.89 (very good)
Dependent	Training effectiveness	- Perceived usefulness and impact of the training	Adapted training effectiveness scale (Roberts, 2018)	Cronbach’s α = 0.87
Dependent	Leadership support	- Perception of management’s involvement in safety training	Leadership support for safety questionnaire (Taylor & Wallis, 2016)	Cronbach’s α = 0.90