Table 1.
General characteristics of included studies (N=32)
| Study | Country | Year(s) | Study design | Study arms | Number of robotic surgeons | Surgeons’ level of experience with robotic surgery | Procedures/ tasks performed | Robotic technology used | Learning curve overcome | Number of cases to overcome learning curve |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argenziano 2006 | USA | 2006 | Retrospective | Single | NR | 5 predefined stages of TECAB training requirements | Totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass (TECAB) | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Barac 2021 | USA | 2021 | Retrospective | Single | 6 | Academic medical center with vast experience in endoscopic, non-robotic, and robotic mitral repairs | Mitral valve repair (MVR) | da Vinci | No | 16 |
| Bonaros 2006 | Austria | 2006 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | Atrial septal defect (ASD) repair | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Bonatti 2009 | Austria | 2009 | Prospective | Single | 1 | NR | TECAB | da Vinci | Yes | >100 |
| Bonatti 2004 | Austria | 2004 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | TECAB | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Bonatti 2008 | Austria | 2008 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | TECAB | da Vinci | NR | 25 |
| Charland 2011 | USA | 2011 | Retrospective | Single | NR | NR | MVR | da Vinci | NR | NR |
| Cheng 2014 | China | 2014 | Prospective | Single | 1 | Prior experience with successfully performing >650 cases of robotic cardiac surgery at a single center | TECAB | da Vinci | No | NR |
| ChitwoodJr 2005 | USA | 2005 | Retrospective | Single | 1 | NR | MVR | da Vinci | No | NR |
| ChitwoodJr 2001 | USA | 2001 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | MVR | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Gao 2012 | China | 2012 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | MVR | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Goodman 2017 | USA | 2017 | Prospective | Single | 2 | Surgeon A performed approx. 25 robotically assisted cases CABG. Surgeon B had no previous robotic experience | MVR | NR | No | NR |
| Gullu 2021 | Turkey | 2021 | Retrospective | Single | NR | NR | MVR | da Vinci | Yes | 30 |
| Hemli 2013 | USA | 2013 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | Minimally invasive CABG | da Vinci | Yes | 20 |
| Isgro 2003 | Germany | 2003 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | Internal mammary artery takedown | Zeus | No | NR |
| Jones 2005 | USA | 2005 | Retrospective | Single | 1 | Surgeon had performed well over 40 robotically-assisted internal thoracic artery harvests | MVR | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Kakuta 2020 | Japan | 2020 | Retrospective | Single | 3 | NR | MVR | da Vinci | Yes | 10 |
| Kesavuori 2018 | Finland | 2018 | Retrospective | Comparative (control) | NR | NR | MVR | da Vinci | Yes | 30 |
| Klepper 2022 | Belgium | 2022 | Retrospective | Single | 4 | NR | MVR | da Vinci | NR | NR |
| Masroor 2021 | USA | 2021 | Prospective | Single | 114 | No prior experience | Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) | NR | Yes | 8–10 |
| Novick 2003 | Canada | 2003 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | CABG | Zeus | No | 18–20 |
| Oehlinger 2007 | Austria | 2001- 2005 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | CABG | da Vinci | Yes | 50 |
| Patrick 2021 | USA | 2014- 2019 | Prospective | Single | 114 | No prior experience | CABG | NR | Yes | 10 |
| Ramzy 2014 | USA | 2005- 2012 | Retrospective | Single | 2 | No prior experience | MVR | da Vinci | Yes | 120 |
| Sagbas 2006 | Turkey | 2006 | Prospective | Single | NR | NR | CABG, ASD closure | da Vinci | Yes | 59 |
| Schachner 2011 | Austria | 2001- 2009 | Retrospective | Single | 3 | No prior experience | TECAB | da Vinci | Yes | 20 |
| Schachner 2009 | Austria | 2001- 2008 | Retrospective | Single | 2 | Completed TECAB training before robotic surgeries | TECAB, MIDCAB, CABG | da Vinci | No | NR |
| Seo 2019 | USA | 2008- 2016 | Prospective | Comparative (conventional surgery) | 1 | Prior experience with 100 robotically-assisted cases | MVR | da Vinci | Yes | 100 |
| VandenEynde 2021 | Belgium, USA | 2015- 2020 | Retrospective | Single | 3 | NR | Single internal mammary artery bypass grafting | da Vinci | Yes | 100 |
| Xiao 2014 | China | 2007- 2013 | Prospective | Single | 1 | No prior experience | ASD repair | da Vinci | Yes | 60–120 |
| Yaffee 2014 | USA, Czech Republic | NR | Prospective | Single | 2 | Completed clinical scenarios, simulations, wet laboratories, and ‘‘expert’’ observation for 3 months | MVR | da Vinci | Yes | NR |
| Jonsson 2023 | USA | 2009- 2020 | Prospective | Single | 1 | Completed preliminary training. | CABG | da Vinci | Yes | 250-500 |
NR not recorded. Assumption that a plateau of the learning curve means the curve has been overcome, as no further improvement is being made