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. 2025 Aug 12;23:472. doi: 10.1186/s12916-025-04309-2

Table 2.

Estimated annual percentage change in age-standardized death and DALY rates of early-onset cardiovascular diseases attributable to PM2.5 air pollution from 1990 to 2021, stratified by sex, age groups, SDI levels, and causes

Death (%) DALYs (%)
Total PM2.5 pollution (95% CI) Ambient PM2.5 pollution (95% CI) Household PM2.5 from solid fuels (95% CI) Total PM2.5 pollution(95% CI) Ambient PM2.5 pollution(95% CI) Household PM2.5 from solid fuels (95% CI)
Global  − 1.56 (− 1.68, − 1.45) 0.37 (0.23, 0.52)  − 3.22 (− 3.48, − 2.96)  − 1.54 (− 1.65, − 1.42) 0.43 (0.29, 0.58)  − 3.20 (− 3.47, − 2.94)
Sex
Male  − 1.28 (− 1.42, − 1.13) 0.45 (0.30, 0.61)  − 3.01 (− 3.32, − 2.69)  − 1.25 (− 1.39, − 1.11) 0.51 (0.36, 0.66)  − 3.00 (− 3.32, − 2.68)
Female  − 2.09 (− 2.16, − 2.02) 0.24 (0.10, 0.38)  − 3.52 (− 3.70, − 3.34)  − 2.03 (− 2.11, − 1.96) 0.31 (0.18, 0.45)  − 3.49 (− 3.68, − 3.31)
Age group
25–29  − 1.38 (− 1.54, − 1.22) 0.86 (0.66, 1.05)  − 3.08 (− 3.39, − 2.78)  − 1.39 (− 1.54, − 1.24) 0.86 (0.67, 1.06)  − 3.10 (− 3.40, − 2.81)
30–34  − 1.28 (− 1.43, − 1.13) 0.84 (0.69, 0.99)  − 2.98 (− 3.34, − 2.63)  − 1.29 (− 1.44, − 1.14) 0.85 (0.70, 1.00)  − 3.01 (− 3.36, − 2.66)
35–39  − 1.49 (− 1.63, − 1.35) 0.44 (0.29, 0.59)  − 3.12 (− 3.44, − 2.80)  − 1.48 (− 1.62, − 1.34) 0.47 (0.33, 0.62)  − 3.13 (− 3.45, − 2.81)
40–44  − 1.57 (− 1.68, − 1.47) 0.31 (0.18, 0.43)  − 3.18 (− 3.42, − 2.94)  − 1.56 (− 1.66, − 1.46) 0.34 (0.22, 0.46)  − 3.18 (− 3.42, − 2.94)
45–49  − 1.68 (− 1.80, − 1.56) 0.23 (0.07, 0.40)  − 3.35 (− 3.58, − 3.12)  − 1.65 (− 1.77, − 1.54) 0.28 (0.11, 0.45)  − 3.35 (− 3.58, − 3.11)
SDI level
High  − 2.35 (− 2.46, − 2.25)  − 1.96 (− 2.03, − 1.88)  − 15.77 (− 16.45, − 15.08)  − 2.20 (− 2.30, − 2.09)  − 1.80 (− 1.87, − 1.72)  − 15.60 (− 16.25, − 14.95)
High-middle  − 3.54 (− 3.89, − 3.18)  − 1.31 (− 1.62, − 0.99)  − 10.16 (− 11.32, − 8.98)  − 3.44 (− 3.77, − 3.10)  − 1.14 (− 1.44, − 0.84)  − 10.15 (− 11.30, − 8.98)
Middle  − 2.05 (− 2.20, − 1.90) 1.19 (1.04, 1.34)  − 5.75 (− 6.35, − 5.15)  − 2.03 (− 2.18, − 1.88) 1.23 (1.08, 1.38)  − 5.73 (− 6.33, − 5.13)
Low-middle  − 1.01 (− 1.13, − 0.88) 1.72 (1.50, 1.94)  − 2.20 (− 2.46, − 1.94)  − 1.01 (− 1.13, − 0.88) 1.72 (1.50, 1.94)  − 2.20 (− 2.46, − 1.94)
Low  − 1.08 (− 1.15, − 1.01) 0.32 (0.05, 0.59)  − 1.37 (− 1.46, − 1.28)  − 1.04 (− 1.10, − 0.97) 0.36 (0.09, 0.63)  − 1.33 (− 1.42, − 1.24)
Cause
Ischemic heart disease  − 0.96 (− 1.05, − 0.87) 0.61 (0.47, 0.76)  − 2.57 (− 2.83, − 2.31)  − 0.93 (− 1.03, − 0.84) 0.66 (0.52, 0.81)  − 2.56 (− 2.83, − 2.29)
Stroke  − 2.41 (− 2.57, − 2.24)  − 0.05 (− 0.25, 0.14)  − 3.96 (− 4.24, − 3.68)  − 2.30 (− 2.46, − 2.14) 0.06 (− 0.12, 0.25)  − 3.88 (− 4.16, − 3.61)
Ischemic stroke  − 1.82 (− 2.00, − 1.64) 0.30 (0.09, 0.51)  − 3.79 (− 4.12, − 3.46)  − 1.52 (− 1.67, − 1.37) 0.63 (0.45, 0.81)  − 3.45 (− 3.76, − 3.15)
Intracerebral hemorrhage  − 2.30 (− 2.50, − 2.09) 0.19 (− 0.04, 0.42)  − 3.82 (− 4.13, − 3.51)  − 2.28 (− 2.48, − 2.08) 0.21 (− 0.02, 0.43)  − 3.81 (− 4.13, − 3.50)
Subarachnoid hemorrhage  − 3.45 (− 3.57, − 3.33)  − 1.51 (− 1.69, − 1.33)  − 4.80 (− 4.94, − 4.66)  − 3.27 (− 3.38, − 3.17)  − 1.29 (− 1.46, − 1.13)  − 4.66 (− 4.80, − 4.52)

DALY disability adjusted life year, PM2.5 fine particulate matter, SDI sociodemographic index, CI confidence interval