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. 2025 Aug 13;15:29738. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-97186-x

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Electrophysiological modulation of co-culture glutamatergic neurons with TTX. (a) Timeline of TTX exposure experiment steps. (b) Brightfield contrast pictures of compartmentalized glutamatergic neurons culture in Ch1 and Ch3, with the color legend of each compartment. (c) Raster plots before/after neuronal exposure of TTX in channel 1 or in channel 3. Bar graphs showing (d,e) MFR, (f,g) WMFR and (h,i) synchrony index in each step of TTX exposure in channels and in microchannels respectively. The data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA to evaluate the effects of Ch1, Ch3, 1µ2 and 2µ3 and their interaction in time. Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was used as a post-hoc analysis to compare specific group means. * p-value < 0.05, ** p-value < 0.01, *** p-value < 0.001 and **** p-value < 0.001. Error bar = SD. TTX: tetrodotoxin. MFR: mean firing rate, WMFR: weighted mean firing rate.