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. 2025 Aug 13;15:29738. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-97186-x

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Electrophysiological effects of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and non-neurodegenerative (NN) patient CSF exposure on co-cultured glutamatergic neurons. (a) Timeline of the CSF exposure experiment. (b–d) Bar graphs showing microchannel weighted mean firing rate (WMFR) over time following chronic exposure to CSF from three anonymous Alzheimer’s patients (A1, A2, and A3). (e–f) Bar graphs showing WMFR over time following chronic exposure to CSF from two anonymous non neurodegenerative patients (H1 and H2). (g) Bar graph showing WMFR over time following chronic exposure to control media (BrainPhys). (h–m) WMFR normalization relative to baseline for each condition: (h–j) AD patients (A1, A2, A3), (k–l) NN patients (H1, H2), and (m) control media. (n) WMFR normalization relative to control media for Alzheimer’s patient CSF conditions. (o) WMFR normalization relative to control media for non-neurodegenerative patient CSF conditions. The data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA to evaluate the effects of 1µ2 and 2µ3 and their interaction in time. Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was used as a post-hoc analysis to compare specific group means. * p-value < 0.05, ** < 0.01, *** < 0.01 and **** < 0.0001. Error bar = SD. CSF: cerebrospinal fluid. MFR: mean firing rate, WMFR : weighted mean firing rate.