Table 2.
The associations of characteristics with the levels of HbA1c, BMI, SBP, and DBP.
| Variables | HbA1c levels (%) | Body mass index (kg/m 2 ) | SBP (mmHg) | DBP (mmHg) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | p value (95% CI) | β | p value (95% CI) | β | p value (95% CI) | β | p value (95% CI) | |
| Adolescent's characteristics | ||||||||
| Sex (male vs. female) | 0.041 | 0.815 (−0.303; 0.385) | −0.659 | 0.031∗ (−1.259; −0.059) | 12.308 | ≤ 0.001∗ (10.639; 13.976) | 1.800 | 0.009∗ (0.446; 3.154) |
| Birth weight (kg) | 0.454 | 0.020∗ (0.072; 0.836) | 0.604 | 0.042∗ (0.021; 1.188) | 0.555 | 0.560 (−1.314; 2.425) | −0.567 | 0.400 (−1.890; 0.756) |
| HAZ | −0.059 | 0.188 (−0.146; 0.029) | 0.136 | 0.085 (−0.019; 0.291) | −0.215 | 0.399 (−0.715; 0.285) | −0.362 | 0.043∗ (−0.713; −0.012 |
| WAZ | −0.075 | 0.243 (−0.200; 0.051) | 0.511 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.305; 0.716) | 0.394 | 0.246 (−0.272; 1.059) | −0.039 | 0.871 (−0.512; 0.434) |
| WHZ | −0.023 | 0.676 (−0.132; 0.086) | 0.260 | 0.006∗ (0.073; 0.447) | 0.593 | 0.054 (−0.011; 1.197) | 0.442 | 0.042∗ (0.016; 0.868) |
| Rapid growth in WAZ (RG vs. non-RG) | 0.881 | 0.003∗ (0.297; 1.465) | 1.270 | 0.004∗ (0.397; 2.144) | 2.642 | 0.058 (−0.092; 5.377) | 2.129 | 0.030∗ (0.206; 4.051) |
| Rapid growth in HAZ (RG vs. non-RG) | 0.027 | 0.919 (−0.501; 0.556) | 0.291 | 0.486 (−0.529; 1.110) | 3.225 | 0.014∗ (0.651; 5.798) | 1.544 | 0.092 (−0.253; 3.340) |
| Rapid growth in WHZ (RG vs. non-RG) | 0.613 | 0.025∗ (0.077; 1.150) | 1.100 | 0.007∗ (0.297; 1.903) | 1.269 | 0.331 (−1.295; 3.833) | 0.966 | 0.286 (−0.810; 2.743) |
| Education (duration in years) | 0.065 | 0.147 (−0.023; 0.153) | 0.035 | 0.626 (−0.105; 0.174) | −0.610 | 0.007∗ (−1.055; −0.164) | −0.225 | 0.164 (−0.541; 0.092) |
| Employment status (working vs. unemployed) | −0.111 | 0.531 (−0.457; 0.236) | −0.338 | 0.279 (−0.950; 0.275) | 2.323 | 0.020∗ (0.374; 4.272) | −0.002 | 0.998 (−1.387; 1.384) |
| Smoking status (smoker vs. nonsmoker) | −0.109 | 0.664 (−0.602; 0.383) | −0.564 | 0.151 (−1.334; 0.206) | 6.085 | ≤ 0.001∗ (3.670; 8.501) | −0.497 | 0.576 (−2.239; 1.245) |
| Physical activity (inactive vs. active) | 0.114 | 0.562 (−0.267; 0.496) | −0.135 | 0.689 (−0.800; 0.529) | −3.500 | 0.001∗ (−5.602; −1.398) | −1.166 | 0.126 (−2.660; 0.329) |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 0.028 | 0.200 (−0.015; 0.071) | — | — | 0.968 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.728; 1.208) | 0.656 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.485; 0.827) |
| HbA1c level (%) | — | — | 0.426 | 0.205 (−0.236; 1.087) | −3.898 | 0.734 (−1.869; 2.646) | 0.822 | 0.332 (−0.848; 2.493) |
| SBP (mmHg) | 0.002 | 0.732 (−0.011; 0.015) | 0.092 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.069; 0.115) | — | — | — | — |
| DBP (mmHg) | 0.009 | 0.327 (−0.009; 0.026) | 0.125 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.092; 0.157) | — | — | — | — |
| Number of full meals per day (≥ 3×/day vs. < 3×/day) | −0.039 | 0.841 (−0.418; 0.340) | −0.480 | 0.160 (−1.150; 0.190) | 2.627 | 0.106 (0.498; 4.756) | −0.038 | 0.961 (−1.549; 1.473) |
| Staple food consumption (day/week) | 0.294 | 0.343 (−0.314; 0.902) | −0.153 | 0.542 (−0.644; 0.339) | −0.744 | 0.351 (−2.311; 0.823) | −0.409 | 0.468 (−1.516; 0.698) |
| Protein consumption (day/week) | −0.011 | 0.665 (−0.060; 0.038) | 0.031 | 0.452 (−0.050; 0.113) | −0.014 | 0.913 (−0.274; 0.245) | 0.040 | 0.671 (−0.144; 0.223) |
| Vegetable consumption (day/week) | 0.053 | 0.179 (−0.006; 0.112) | −0.008 | 0.876 (−0.107; 0.091) | −0.182 | 0.256 (−0.497; 0.133) | −0.172 | 0.130 (−0.394; 0.051) |
| Fruit consumption (day/week) | −0.011 | 0.686 (−0.062; 0.041) | 0.018 | 0.687 (−0.071; 0.107) | −0.243 | 0.193 (−0.527; 0.041) | 0.041 | 0.692 (−0.161; 0.242) |
| Sugary food consumption (day/week) | −0.047 | 0.175 (−0.115; 0.021) | 0.022 | 0.714 (−0.094; 0.137) | −0.566 | 0.120 (−0.931; −0.201) | −0.234 | 0.176 (−0.493; 0.025) |
| Instant noodle consumption (day/week) | −0.032 | 0.462 (−0.119; 0.054) | ≤ 0.001 | 0.995 (−0.146; 0.147) | 0.377 | 0.114 (−0.091; 0.844) | 0.234 | 0.164 (−0.096; 0.564) |
| Fast food consumption (day/week) | −0.025 | 0.739 (−0.173; 0.123) | 0.145 | 0.383 (−0.182; 0.473) | −0.561 | 0.291 (−1.604; 0.481) | 0.352 | 0.349 (−0.385; 1.088) |
| Soft drink consumption (day/week) | −0.047 | 0.454 (−0.172; 0.077) | 0.062 | 0.588 (−0.163; 0.287) | 0.597 | 0.102 (−0.120; 1.314) | 0.289 | 0.264 (−0.218; 0.796) |
| Fried food consumption (day/week) | −0.021 | 0.569 (−0.095; 0.052) | 0.109 | 0.171 (−0.009; 0.228) | 0.222 | 0.251 (−0.157; 0.601) | 0.206 | 0.131 (−0.062; 0.474) |
| Father's characteristics | ||||||||
| Education (duration in years) | 0.040 | 0.103 (−0.008; 0.089) | 0.027 | 0.449 (−0.043; 0.096) | −0.201 | 0.073 (−0.422; 0.019) | −0.006 | 0.938 (−0.164; 0.152) |
| BMI (kg/m2) | −0.013 | 0.681 (−0.073; 0.048) | 0.331 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.249; 0.414) | 0.277 | 0.054 (−0.005; 0.559) | 0.127 | 0.209 (−0.071; 0.326) |
| HbA1c level (%) | 0.006 | 0.962 (−0.230; 0.242) | 0.422 | 0.137 (−0.136; 0.980) | 0.791 | 0.478 (−1.413; 2.995) | 0.501 | 0.533 (−1.089; 2.092) |
| Waist circumference (cm) | −0.010 | 0.376 (−0.032; 0.012) | 0.086 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.056; 0.115) | 0.061 | 0.224 (−0.037; 0.159) | 0.028 | 0.428 (−0.041; 0.097) |
| SBP (mmHg) | 0.007 | 0.208 (−0.004; 0.017) | 0.011 | 0.151 (−0.004; 0.027) | 0.062 | 0.016∗ (0.012; 0.112) | 0.055 | 0.002∗ (0.020; 0.091) |
| DBP (mmHg) | −0.002 | 0.798 (−0.021; 0.016) | 0.020 | 0.118 (−0.005; 0.045) | 0.057 | 0.169 (−0.024; 0.139) | 0.087 | 0.003∗ (0.030; 0.144) |
| Mother's characteristics | ||||||||
| Education (duration in years) | 0.010 | 0.633 (−0.033; 0.053) | 0.046 | 0.211 (−0.026; 0.118) | −0.243 | 0.047∗ (−0.482; −0.004) | −0.065 | 0.451 (−0.233; 0.104) |
| Height of mother (stunted vs. normal) | 0.050 | 0.777 (−0.293; 0.393) | −0.475 | 0.121 (−1.077; 0.126) | 0.844 | 0.390 (−1.081; 2.769) | 0.381 | 0.583 (−0.981; 1.744) |
| BMI (kg/m2) | −0.005 | 0.821 (−0.047; 0.037) | 0.188 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.125; 0.251) | 0.047 | 0.671 (−0.170; 0.264) | −0.041 | 0.594 (−0.193; 0.111) |
| HbA1c (%) | 0.072 | 0.439 (−0.110; 0.255) | 0.472 | 0.051 (−0.002; 0.945) | 0.944 | 0.289 (−0.812; 2.700) | 1.092 | 0.092 (−0.180; 2.363) |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 0.003 | 0.773 (−0.019; 0.026) | 0.071 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.040; 0.102) | 0.034 | 0.505 (−0.066; 0.135) | −0.012 | 0.730 (−0.080; 0.056) |
| SBP (mmHg) | −0.006 | 0.174 (−0.014; 0.003) | 0.012 | 0.065 (−0.001; 0.025) | 0.095 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.052; 0.138) | 0.059 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.028; 0.089) |
| DBP (mmHg) | −0.010 | 0.152 (−0.024; 0.004) | 0.017 | 0.145 (−0.006; 0.041) | 0.123 | 0.002∗ (0.044; 0.202) | 0.128 | ≤ 0.001∗ (0.074; 0.183) |
| Household characteristics | ||||||||
| Living area (urban vs. rural) | 0.202 | 0.257 (−0.148; 0.553) | −0.292 | 0.360 (−0.919; 0.334) | 1.196 | 0.241 (−0.805; 3.196) | −0.732 | 0.311 (−2.149; 0.684) |
| Household size (no. of persons) | −0.008 | 0.830 (−0.085; 0.068) | −0.016 | 0.833 (−0.164; 0.132) | −0.251 | 0.298 (−0.723; 0.222) | −0.314 | 0.065 (−0.648; 0.019) |
| Food expenditure (%) | −0.012 | 0.032∗ (−0.023; −0.001) | −0.016 | 0.111 (−0.036; 0.004) | 0.028 | 0.383 (−0.035; 0.091) | −0.010 | 0.652 (−0.055; 0.034) |
| Nonfood expenditure (%) | 0.012 | 0.032∗ (0.001; 0.023) | 0.016 | 0.112 (−0.004; 0.036) | −0.028 | 0.386 (−0.091; 0.035) | 0.010 | 0.667 (−0.035; 0.054) |
Abbreviations: β, coefficient; BAZ, BMI-for-age z-score; BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HAZ, height-for-age z-score; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; RG, rapid growth; SBP, systolic blood pressure; WAZ, weight-for-age z-score; WHZ, weight-for-height z-score.
∗p < 0.05.