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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Aug 19.
Published in final edited form as: Acta Mater Med. 2025 Jan 30;4(1):99–121. doi: 10.15212/amm-2024-0075

Figure 1. The key biomarkers and their related signaling pathways in prostate cancer (PrCa).

Figure 1.

Androgen stimulates androgen receptor (AR) signalling, resulting in the induction and secretion of prostate-specific antigen (PSMA), while illustrating the enzymatic function of prostate-specific membrane antigen PSMA and its role in folate metabolism and mGluR signalling pathways. AR, androgen receptor; DHT, dihydrotestosterone; HSP, heat shock protein; ARE, androgen response elements; BRD4, bromodomain-containing protein 4; PSMA, prostate-specific membrane antigen; PSA, Prostate-specific antigen; TMPRSS2-ERG, transmembrane protease serine 2:v-ets erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog; mGluR, metabotropic glutamate receptor; PI3K, Phosphoinositide 3-kinases; AKT, Protein kinase B; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; PCFT, proton-coupled folate transporter; RFC1, reduced folate carrier.