Table 2.
Summary of efficiency, durability and functional roles of 2D Materials in PSCs
| Year | Device Structure | Durability | Functionality | PCE (%) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2022 | ITO/SnO2/perovskite/QD/GO/spiro-OMeTAD/Au | Retaining 90% of its efficiency for 1000 h at 60 °C in ambient air | Function as multifunctional interface modulator, anchor CsPbBr3 to enhance charge transport, optimize energy band alignment, passivate surface defect and act as barrier against ion and moisture diffusion | 18.55 | [141] |
| 2022 | ITO/PTAA/CsPbI3/Ti3C2Tx/CPTA/BCP | Preserving 85% of PCE for 1000 h with 85% relative humidity | Acts as a moisture barrier, enhances charge separation via improved interfacial electric field and optimizes charge extraction at ETL/perovskite interface | 19.69 | [142] |
| 2022 | PTAA/BABr + MAPbl3/PCBM/ZnO | Retained 62% of its initial PCE after 1000 h and maintained 64% of its initial performance thermal stability after 500 h | Function as surface passivation layer with controlled orientation, reduce trap density, enhance charge transport and improve stability through anisotropic crystal engineering | 21.40 | [143] |
| 2022 | Mp-TiO2/CsFAMA/F-BP/spiro-OMeTAD | Maintained 95% of its efficiency at room temperature after 30 days | Enhance antioxidant properties, strong P-Pb coordination and interaction reduce trap states | 22.06 | [144] |
| 2022 | PEA2GAPb2I7 + FA0.6MA0.4Pb0.6Sn0.4I3/C60/BCP | Maintained 82% of its respective maximum PCE after 1830 h under continuous operation in N2 | Formed mixed bulky cation additives, act as a defect passivation layer in Sn–Pb narrow-bandgap, enhances structural quality, reduce dark carrier density, increase carrier lifetime and improve stability | 22.10 | [145] |
| 2022 | TiO2/GAMA5Pb5I16/spiro-OMeTAD | Maintained 94% of its initial efficiency after 1200 h under ambient condition and relative humidity of 25% | Serve as the active layer with enhanced stability, improve phase purity and crystallinity, reducing trap density and boosting charge mobility | 22.26 | [146] |
| 2022 | SnO2-Mxene + Ti3C2Tx /(PEA)2MA3Pb4I13/spiro-OMeTAD | Maintained 90% of its initial value, at 30% relative humidity for 500 h | Serve as ETL to enhance interfacial contact and passivate defects at SnO2/perovskite interface, regulate SnO2 dispersion and promote vertical growth of perovskite with reduced interfacial stress | 23.07 | [147] |
| 2022 | FTO/SnO2/CsFAMA/Cs3TbCl6 QDs/spiro-OMeTAD:BPQDs | Preserved 88% of its PCE after 2520 h with 30% relative humidity | Regulate energy levels, passivate ionic defects and fill grain boundaries Enhance hole mobility and conductivity within HTL and overall interface optimization and stability | 23.49 | [148] |
| 2022 | SnO2/perovskite/Cs3TbCl6 QDs/BPQDs | Retained 88% of original PCE after storage in ambient air with relative humidity of 30% within 2520 h | Modify HTL for improved charge extraction and interfacial contact Fill grain boundaries, regulate energy levels, reduce defect density and passivate ionic defects | 23.49 | [148] |
| 2022 | NiOx/FPEA + Cs0.05FA0.85MA0.1PbI3/PCBM/BCP | Unencapsulated device retained 100% of its initial PCE around 50% relative humidity for over 1000 h | Bulkier organic ligands slow 2D formation and promote growth of wider RDPs Mitigate electron blocking at interfaces and improved humidity stability | 23.91 | [149] |
| 2022 | FTO/SnO2/Nb2CTx/CsFAMA/Nb2CTx/spiro-OMeTAD/Ag | Retaining 93% of its efficiency after 1500 h | Dual interfacial modifiers at perovskite/CTL interface enhance carrier mobility, reduce energy-level mismatch and facilitate hole transport via oxygen terminal groups | 24.11 | [150] |
| 2022 | 2PACz/OALI + Cs0.03(FA0.9MA0.1)0.97PbI3 /C60/BCP | Passed industrial damp-heat test and retained 95% of its PCE after 100 h at 85 °C temperature and 85% relative humidity | Used at the electron-selective interface, tailoring the number of octahedral inorganic sheets enables effective surface passivation, reduce trap states and suppress ion migration | 24.30 | [151] |
| 2022 | SnO2/NPMA + mixed perovskite/spiro-OMeTAD/MoO3 | Unencapsulated device maintains 98% of its initial PCE after 1500 h by maximum power point tracking under continuous light irradiation | Enhance film quality by enlarging grain size, reducing grain boundaries defects and suppressing ionic diffusion | 24.37 | [152] |
| 2022 | SnO2/(BA)4AgBiBr6 + mixed perovskite /spiro-OMeTAD/MoO3 | Maintained 90% of initial PCE under continuous heating after 1000 h | Serve as type-I heterojunction barrier, suppress trap-assisted recombination at the interface and iodide ion diffusion from perovskite to metal electrode | 24.48 | [153] |
| 2023 | FTO/TiO2/CsPbBr3/WS2/AgI5S8/Carbon | Maintained over 93% PCE for 720 h with high humidity and temperature | Serve as HTL in CsPbBr3 and offers lattice matching and type-II band alignment and defect passivation | 10.24 | [154] |
| 2023 | TiO2/CsPblBr2/Ti3C2Tx-Patched-GO | Maintained nearly the same performance at 25 °C and 10% relative humidity for over 2376 h | Serve as a multifunctional perovskite film plaster to regulate interfacial energetics and passivate defects in carbon-based PSCs Enhance energy-level alignment, charge transport and lattice stability through chemical bonding | 15.04 | [155] |
| 2023 | PTAA/PEDOT: PSS/FPEA/PEA/PC61BM | Maintained good thermal stability and retained 90% of their initial efficiency after 720 h | Act as novel spacer cation in quasi-2D RP to enhance dipole-octahedra interaction, improve crystallinity, stabilize mixed and α-FAPbI3 phases, optimize energy-level alignment, long carrier diffusion length and reduced trap density | 16.77 | [156] |
| 2023 | PEDOT:PSS/(SeMA)2MAPb2I7 /PDTL/PCBM:BCP | Retained its original efficiency in ambient condition and 5% relative humidity for 1008 h | Function as a selenophene-based spacer to enhance film quality and orientation Passivate surface defects, densify ETL and promote efficient electron extraction | 19.03 | [157] |
| 2023 | NiOx/g-C3N4/L-C3N4/PEAI/PCBM/BCP | Maintained 80% of its original PCE for 300 h of continuous operation | Function as interfacial layer between NiOx HTL and perovskite Suppress charge carrier recombination and defective charge accumulation by improving photoinduced charge transfer | 19.33 | [158] |
| 2023 | SAM/PVK/PCBM/BCP | Retained excellent mechanical durability, preserving 93% of original efficiency after 1000 bending cycle at a 5 mm radius Retained 82% of initial PCE after 1000 h of aging | Serve as a seed layer within 3D perovskite to enhance built-in electric field, improve exciton dissociation and crystallization of films, reduce hole transport barrier, facilitates highly oriented homogeneous crystal growth | 23.00 | [159] |
| 2023 | ITO/MeO-2PACz/CsFAMA:Gr /C60/BCP | Retaining 938% of PCE after 1000 h | Anchor excess Pbl2 to control its adverse effects, passivate grain boundaries, reduce charge recombination and enhance electron extraction, improve long-term thermal and operational stability | 23.70 | [160] |
| 2023 | SnO2/Ti3C2Clx/perovskite/0-TB-GDY/spiro-OMeTAD | Unencapsulated cells retained 92% of their initial PCE after 1464 h under ambient air and 80% retention observed after 1002 h of thermal exposure at 85 °C | Improved charge carrier extraction, enhanced energy band alignment due to significantly inhibited non-radiative recombination and passivated the perovskite/ETL and perovskite/HTL interfaces | 24.86 | [161] |
| 2023 | TiO2/Pbl4/amidino-based Dion-Jacobson/spiro-OMeTAD | Retained 97% of its efficiency without encapsulation after 1000 h of storage under ambient conditions with 40% of relative humidity | Facilitates nucleation and growth of film, forms bulk heterostructure with reduced voids and defects, enhances charge transport and improves stability | 24.90 | [162] |
| 2024 | (TMA)2(FA)n−1PbnI3n+1 | Unencapsulated device maintained 88% of original efficiency at RT with relative humidity of 30% for a duration of 1080 h | Acts as the organic interlayer cation, form less low-n phase formation, better film quality and significantly improved electron mobility | 16.56 | [163] |
| 2024 | n-MoS2/p-MoS2 | – | Functions as 2D absorber layer in vertically stacked Schottky and pn junction, enhances sunlight harvesting due to optimal electrical and optical properties | 16.86 | [164] |
| 2024 | (DF-BZA)2FA3Pb4I13 /Quasi-2D | Retained an average of 96% of original efficiency after 3000 h of storage in a N2-filled glove box | Act as absorber layer, improve film quality by enlarging grain size and increasing carrier lifetime | 19.24 | [165] |
| 2024 | TiO2/Cs2TiBr6/MoS2/PEDOT:PSS | – | Serve as HTL, offers high carrier mobility, better charge transport, reduce interface recombination and excellent chemical and thermal stability | 19.29 | [166] |
| 2024 | TC6Cl + Chlorine & Bromine Quasi-2D | Retained 972% of original efficiency after 1100 h of continuous light at 60% relative humidity at RT | Function as tailored hole transport materials, enhance energy-level alignment, improve hole extraction, passivate interface defects and reduce non-radiative recombination | 21.07 | [167] |
| 2024 | MeO-2PACz/ Cs(MAFA)Pb(IBr)/MPA/ BA2MAn-1PbnI3n+1/PCBM/BGP | Retained 92% of its efficiency after 750 h storage in air around 2985 °C with 60% relative humidity | Integration of a thin passivating dipole layer eliminates energetic mismatch and electron extraction barrier Reduces surface defects, suppresses non-radiative recombination and improves interfacial charge extraction | 21.53 | [168] |
| 2024 | FA0.6MA0.4Sn0.7Pb0.3I3/C60-2NH3/C60/BCP/Cu | Maintained 90% of its efficiency after being stored under N2 atmosphere for 2400 h | Used as an interlayer, improves band alignment, enhances carrier mobility and suppresses non-radiative recombination at perovskite/C60 interface | 21.64 | [169] |
| 2024 | SnO2/MBene/perovskite/Spiro-OMeTAD | Retained 951% of PCE in air with 50% relative humidity at room temperature for 200 h | Forms a strong chemical bridge, enhancing charge transfer, aligning energy levels and passivating SnO2 surface defects | 24.32 | [110] |
| 2024 | (BDA)(MA)n− 1PbnI3n+1 /MXene | – | Bandgap tunable by varying layer number, overcome toxicity and stability issues, suppress pinholes and improve charge transport | 24.60 | [170] |
| 2025 | TiO2/MoSSe@MXene@TiO2/CH3NH3PbI3 | Extended operation life and moisture resistance | Reduced work function of ETL for better interface alignment, facilitate charge extraction, suppress surface recombination and accelerate electron transport | 13.50 | [171] |
| 2025 | FTO/cp/mp-TiO2/MAPbl3:CN/C | – | Enhances crystallinity and facilitates charge transport via π-conjugated network | 13.74 | [172] |
| 2025 | ITO/Ti3CNTx/perovskite/Spiro-OMeTAD/Ag | Maintained 703% of its PCE after 600 h in the air | Optimized energy-level alignment, high conductivity, interacts with I− ions to passivate defects and strong Pb–O bonds for enhanced stability | 20.16 | [173] |
| 2025 | FTO/TiO2/2D RP Perovskite/CNBThMA Spacer/Spiro-OMeTAD | – | Donor–acceptor CNBThMA spacer eliminates dielectric mismatch, optimizes energy-level formation, adjusts anisotropic charge transport and improves film quality | 20.82 | [174] |
| 2025 | SnO2/Perovskite:NbSe2-NP/MoO3/Ag | Maintained 81% of its initial PCE after 2400 h at 65% relative humidity and 25 °C | Strong coordination with Se2−/S2− anions passivate defects, reduce trap density and extend charge carrier lifetime | 23.03 | [175] |
| 2025 | SnO2/perovskite:MBene/spiro/Au | Improved thermal stability and humidity, retains performance under long-term air exposure | Passivate uncoordinated Pb2+ improved vacancy formation energy and modulates crystallization via increased nucleation sites for improved film quality and reduced non-radiative recombination | 24.22 | [176] |
| 2025 | Planar p-i-n PSC/MoS2/FAPbI3/MoS2 | Maintained 96% of original PCE after 1200 h at 85 °C at 85% relative humidity | Wafer-scale MoS2 buffers block ion migration, chemically stabilize FAPbI3 via Pb–S coordination and provide type-I band alignment to suppress minority-carrier losses | 26.20 | [32] |