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. 2025 Jul 28;11(8):1628–1641. doi: 10.1038/s41477-025-02049-y

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — a, Normalized proportion of FLS2 residues with dN/dS >1 across 28 LRR domains. The black line represents the average proportions from the three phylogenetic groups across each LRR domain. b, Schematic representations of FLS2 from three plant groups, with colour bars highlighting residues under positive selection with a BEB probability >0.95. c, dN/dS per codon for LRR 7 and 8. Residues with dN/dS >1 are highlighted with colour scheme representing Brassicaceae (peach), Rosales (slate) and Fagales (salmon). Concave-surface regions are shaded with light yellow. Residues under positive selection are marked with an asterisk (BEB probability >0.95). d, Overlay of the crystal structure of AtFLS2 (Protein Data Bank 4MN8) with AlphaFold3 models of MdFLS2 and QvFLS2, representing the three plant phylogenetic groups. Residues under positive selection (BEB probability >0.95) are highlighted using the colour scheme described in b. e, dN/dS per codon for LRR 16 and 17. Residues with dN/dS >1 are highlighted using the colour scheme described in b. Regions on the concave surface are shaded in light yellow. Residues under positive selection are marked with an asterisk (BEB probability >0.95). f–h, Structural visualization of the AtFLS2–BAK1–Paeflg22 (Protein Data Bank 4MN8) complex (f) alongside AlphaFold3 models of MdFLS2–NbSERK3A–Paeflg22 (g) and QvFLS2–NbSERK3A–Rso_1flg22 (h). FLS2 residues under positive selection are highlighted in cyan, whereas residues of the flg22 and SERK3 interacting with positively selected FLS2 residues (within a 5-Å distance) are shown in orange. The N and C termini of flg22 are labelled. i, dN/dS of each FLS2 concave-surface residue in relation to its minimal distance from flg22 or SERK3. Top, density distributions for residues (dN/dS >1, green; ≤1, grey). Bottom, scatter plot of all FLS2 concave-surface residues colour-coded by dN/dS and proximity to flg22 or SERK3. The dashed red line at dN/dS = 1 indicates the threshold between purifying and/or neutral and diversifying selection. dN/dS for each residue was calculated as described in a, then mapped onto the structural models shown in f–h. Minimal atom–atom distances between each FLS2 residue and flg22–SERK3 were extracted.