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. 2025 Aug 19;25:2852. doi: 10.1186/s12889-025-23958-9

Table 2.

Sub–group analysis based on HDI, Educational level, Source of sample, Diagnostic method, Average temperature, Annual rainfall, Climate, GBD Geographies regions, WHO region, Countries, Humidity, Age, Mean age, Gender and District/City/province in included studies

Variables No studies Sample size Infected Pooled prevalence (95% CI) Heterogeneity
I2 τ2 p-value
HDI
 Very High human development 31 25,401 4929 16.94 (9.5–25.98) 99 9.76 P <.001
 High human development 44 104,595 7876 17.39 (10.86–25.07) 99 10.02 P <.001
 Medium human development 68 45,167 9477 15.69 (11.91–19.87) 99 5.14 P <.001
 Low human development 47 24,825 9409 35.35 (25.97–45.34) 99 12.58 P <.001
 Total 190
Income level
 High income level 4 2219 66 2.67 (0.00–11.52) 96 1.22 P <.001
 Upper middle income level 57 115,458 10,965 15.46 (10.22–21.55) 99 8.63 P <.001
 Lower middle income level 91 61,616 16,112 22.78 (17.41–23.63) 99 10.16 P <.001
 Low income level 38 20,695 6432 26.95 (18.74–36.03) 99 8.75 P <.001
 Total 190
Educational level
 Secondary school 7 1788 212 12.65 (7.42–19.01) 91 1.26 P <.001
 Primary school 154 175,407 29,356 21.86 (17.96–26.03) 99 9.42 P <.001
 Primary & Secondary school 29 22,793 4007 0.1675 (0.0829–0.2739) 99 12.44 P <.001
 Total 190
Type of sample
 Stool & Urine 4 12,310 3169 47.27 (18.72–76.83) 99 12.50 P <.001
 Stool 180 185,382 29,698 20.24 (16.71–24.01) 99 9.53 P <.001
 Stool & Blood 5 1325 221 13.93 (4.46–27.40) 97 3.54 P <.001
 Total 190
Diagnostic method
 Direct smear 37 24,959 5404 19.85 (12.63–28.22) 99 9.10 P <.001
 Concentration (Sedimentation) 26 13,745 2944 22.73 (13.3–33.8) 99 10.14 P <.001
 Direct smear & Concentration (Sedimentation) 64 51,350 6016 15.18 (10.76–20.18) 99 7.04 P <.001
 Direct smear & Concentration (Sedimentation) & staining 18 13,044 1424 10.35 (4.9–17.5) 99 4.97 P <.001
 Direct smear & Concentration (Flotation & Sedimentation) 5 2397 620 30.59 (17.08–46.04) 98 3.19 P <.001
 Direct smear & Concentration (Sedimentation) & kato-katz method 14 22,380 6949 47.04 (30.19–64.25) 99 10.95 P <.001
 Direct smear & Concentration (Flotation) 4 2241 364 18.56 (8.21–31.86) 97 2.39 P <.001
 Direct smear & Scotch Tape Test 5 46,858 1942 21.63 (0.00–65.87) 99 27.72 P <.001
 Direct smear & staining 6 4102 1361 40.15 (10.15–75.07) 99 20.29 P <.001
 Kato-katz method 4 6527 3085 51.90 (20.65–80.34) 99 11.48 P <.001
 Direct smear & Concentration (Flotation) & staining 1 461 26 5.64 (3.84–8.10) -—-
 Duplicate Urine filtration & Dipstick & Baerman method & Concentration (Flotation & Sedimentation) 2 2004 883 44.20 (33.02–55.68) 96 0.66 P <.001
 Multiplex PCR 1 7710 2328 30.19 (29.13–31.18) -—-
 Direct smear & Concentration (Sedimentation) & staining & PCR 3 2210 229 7.19 (1.70–15.96) 97 1.46 P <.001
 Total 190
Average temperature
 0–10 2 984 222 16.10 (0.00–55.82) 99 9.56 P <.001
 10–20 61 55,359 6493 11.38 (7.77–15.57) 99 5.83 P <.001
 > 20 127 143,645 26,860 25.94 (21.15–31.04) 99 10.39 P <.001
 Total 190
Humidity
 < 40 33 40,847 3497 12.20 (7.40–17.99) 99 5.54 P <.001
 40–75 134 89,849 22,803 21.42 (17.10–26.07) 99 10.14 P <.001
 > 75 23 69,673 6978 14.85 (8.75–22.20) 99 12.23 P <.001
 Total 190
Annual rainfall
 < 400 43 49,326 4639 11.63 (7.73–16.20) 99 4.79 P <.001
 400–1000 48 40,710 11,581 30.85 (21.77–40.73) 99 13.21 P <.001
 1001–1500 59 22,907 5043 16.63(11.79–22.11) 99 7.20 P <.001
 > 1500 41 90,421 12,511 25.89 (17.68–35.05) 99 10.48 P <.001
 Total 190
Climate
 Desert climate 48 25,097 6986 28.28 (20.04–37.33) 99 11.50 P <.001
 Hot-summer Mediterranean climate 8 7292 2917 27.81 (9.16–51.78) 99 12.66 P <.001
 Humid subtropical climates 1 390 14 3.59 (2.15–5.93) -—-
 Semi-desert climate 26 39,792 2782 7.60 (4.78–11) 98 2.25 P <.001
 Tropical monsoon climate 45 76,352 9916 20.82 (13.38–29.39) 99 11.31 P <.001
 Tropical rainforest climate 18 15,817 5219 35.44 (22.47–49.61) 99 9.54 P <.001
 Tropical savanna climate 20 25,613 3880 16.57 (8.43–26.74) 99 7.92 P <.001
 Tropical wet-dry climate 24 9635 1861 15.39 (9.56–22.29) 99 4.70 P <.001
 Total 190
GBD Geographies regions
 Caribbean 2 307 209 63.52 (24.94–94.03) 97 8 P <.001
 Central Asia 1 594 208 35.02 (31.25–38.91) -—-
 Central Europe 1 390 14 3.59 (2.17–5.95) -—-
 Central Latin America 5 14,989 5173 32.19 (19.54–46.34) 99 2.72 P <.001
 Central sub-Saharan Africa 1 74 18 24.32 (16.40–35.39) -—-
 East Asia 1 44,163 93 0.21 (0.07–0.15) -—-
 Eastern sub-Saharan Africa 25 22,299 7209 36.63 (24.48–49.71) 99 11.27 P <.001
 North Africa and Middle East 49 56,116 6087 9.98 (6.71–13.82) 99 4.39 P <.001
 Oceania 1 400 22 5.50 (3.62–8.15) -—-
 South Asia 72 29,770 5828 16.47 (11.92–21.59) 99 7.81 P <.001
 Southeast Asia 23 25,964 6792 38.30 (25.52–51.96) 99 11.21 P <.001
 Southern sub-Saharan Africa 2 271 88 30.39 (14.18–49.56) 91 1.80 P <.001
 West Africa 1 252 108 42.86 (36.88–49.03) -—-
 Western sub-Saharan Africa 6 4399 1726 36.72 (7.58–72.83) 99 21.35 P <.001
 Total 190
WHO region
 African 30 26,291 8767 35.99 (24.72–48.09) 99 11.67 P <.001
 Americas 7 15,296 5382 40.73 (24.38–58.21) 99 5.52 P <.001
 Eastern Mediterranean 56 57,212 6176 15.33 (10.19–21.28) 99 8.55 P <.001
 European 8 5513 2348 23.67 (5.88–48.51) 99 14.20 P <.001
 South-East Asia 71 35,101 5390 13.24 (9.69–17.24) 99 5.57 P <.001
 Western Pacific 18 60,575 5512 40.90 (26.74–55.88) 99 10.44 P <.001
 Total 190
Countries
 Afghanistan 2 2763 791 31.91 (21.68–43.11) 95 0.67 P <.001
 Burkina Faso 1 385 25 6.49 (4.38–9.35) -—-
 Cambodia 2 1867 684 44.03 (24.44–64.65) 97 2.20 P <.001
 Colombia 1 6945 2182 36.10 (34.77–37.21) -—-
 Cuba 2 307 209 63.52 (24.94–94.03) 97 0.0800 P <.001
 Democratic Republic 1 74 18 24.32 (16.34–35.36) -—-
 Egypt 4 3206 331 10.92 (5.30–18.20) 97 1.06 P <.001
 Ethiopia 16 9058 3974 37.30 (22.49–53.45) 99 10.95 P <.001
 Guatemala 1 5228 1207 23.09 (21.93–24.22) -—-
 Honduras 1 2554 1493 58.46 (56.55–60.38) -—-
 India 21 7838 1805 16.02 (9.61–23.60) 98 4.90 P <.001
 Indonesia 2 625 362 31.60 (0.0–99.92) 99 44.30 P <.001
 Iran 17 33,680 1710 4.62 (2.89–6.72) 97 0.86 P <.001
 Iraq 2 1275 176 14.25 (10.78–18.10) 24 0.07 P =.25
 Kenya 2 10,207 1709 16.67 (15.70–17.66) 0 0.01 P =.52
 Madagascar 1 241 14 5.81 (3.60–9.61) -—-
 Malaysia 7 4807 1315 39.38 (21.58–58.77) 99 6.86 P <.001
 Mali 1 971 487 50.15 (46.97–53.34) -—-
 Nepal 33 12,647 1773 11.96 (7.35–17.48) 98 5.08 P <.001
 Nicaragua 1 880 238 27.05 (24.11–30) -—-
 Nigeria 3 1440 1196 63.25 (16.50–97.87) 99 19.32 P <.001
 Oman 1 436 41 9.40 (6.94–12.45) -—-
 Pakistan 7 1932 1060 58.61 (29.80–84.54) 99 15.58 P <.001
 Palestine 6 5456 959 12.73 (5.54–22.28) 98 2.45 P <.001
 Philippines 3 937 540 60.75 (30.74–86.91) 98 7.04 P <.001
 Saudi Arabia 2 1393 11 0.62 (0.01–1.95) 81 0.0015 P =.02
 Senegal 1 1603 18 1.12 (0.42–1.45) -—-
 Slovakia 1 390 14 3.59 (2.11–5.90) -—-
 South Africa 2 271 88 30.39 (14.18–49.56) 91 1.80 P <.001
 Sri Lanka 1 145 28 19.31 (13.86–26.59) -—-
 Sudan 4 930 364 40.03 (9.58–76.61) 98 13.86 P <.001
 Syria 1 1469 5 0.34 (0.09–0.73) -—-
 Taiwan 1 44,163 93 0.21 (0.07–0.15) -—-
 Tajikistan 1 594 208 35.02 (31.28–38.93) -—-
 Tanzania 2 1863 1148 67.41 (14.04–99.96) 99 17.39 P <.001
 Thailand 14 13,846 1422 9.96 (4–18.17) 99 5.10 P <.001
 The Republic Of Marshall Island 1 400 22 5.50 (3.59–8.13) -—-
 Turkey 6 4529 2126 26.41 (4.04–58.99) 99 17.47 P <.001
 Venezuela 1 282 53 18.79 (14.67–23.77) -—-
 Vietnam 3 8327 2840 65.04 (26.48–94.62) 99 12.23 P <.001
 West Africa 1 252 108 42.86 (36.88–49.03) -—-
 Yemen 10 4672 728 14.85 (8.75–22.20) 97 2.26 P <.001
 Total 190
Age
 5–10 85 102,795 12,330 19.25 (14.69–24.25) 99 8.01 P <.001
 10–15 85 61,428 15,140 22.32 (16.56–28.68) 99 11.63 P <.001
 Total 190
Gender
 Male 108 54,944 10,029 33.15 (28.17–38.33) 99 7.95 P <.001
 Female 108 49,297 8102 31.09 (26.04–36.37) 99 8.48 P <.001
 Total 108
District/City/province
 Aga 1 726 154 21.21 (18.24–24.21) -—-
 Ahmednagar 1 624 54 8.65 (6.63–11.06) -—-
 Amalapuram 1 200 13 6.50 (3.88–10.84) -—-
 Ambara 1 375 95 25.33 (21.20–29.97) -—-
 Ambatoboeny 1 241 14 5.81 (3.31–9.35) -—-
 Amber 1 384 55 14.32 (11.14–18.15) -—-
 Amhara 1 798 248 31.08 (27.93–34.35) -—-
 Amran 1 360 33 9.17 (6.69–12.67) -—-
 Anakaputhur 1 250 19 7.60 (4.51–11.21) -—-
 Angolela 1 664 75 11.30 (9.14–13.96) -—-
 Antioquia 1 6045 2182 36.10 (34.86–37.28) -—-
 Ardabil 1 1070 16 1.50 (0.95–2.44) -—-
 Baglung 1 260 26 10 (6.87–14.21) -—-
 Baharatpur 1 300 62 20.67 (16.51–25.64) -—-
 Bahir Dar 1 2372 1463 61.68 (59.70–63.61) -—-
 Bajawar 1 402 243 60.45 (55.59–65.11) -—-
 Bandar Abbas 1 1456 4 0.27 (0.06–0.65) -—-
 Benin 1 249 164 65.86 (59.75–71.343) -—-
 Berber 1 100 87 87 (78.83–91.97) -—-
 Bhaili 1 250 27 10.80 (7.43–15.18) -—-
 Bhaktapur 3 568 45 6.68 (0.55–18.20) 94 2.31 P <.001
 Bhopal 1 300 45 15 (11.24–19.35) -—-
 Bijapur 1 58 6 10.34 (5.45–21.21) -—-
 Bochesa 1 384 84 21.88 (17.90–26.18) -—-
 Budaun 1 367 49 13.35 (10.30–17.26) -—-
 Bushehr 1 203 23 11.33 (7.77–16.50) -—-
 Chandigarh 1 360 22 6.11 (3.98–9) -—-
 Chiang Mai 1 781 146 18.69 (15.85–21.35) -—-
 Chiang Mal 1 403 120 29.78 (25.36–34.31) -—-
 Chitwan 1 296 23 7.77 (5.35–11.49) -—-
 Dadeldhura 1 530 161 30.38 (26.62–34.42) -—-
 Dahahira 1 436 41 9.40 (7.07–12.56) -—-
 Dak Lak 1 7710 2328 30.19 (29.18–31.23) -—-
 Dakar 1 1603 18 1.12 (0.62–1.68) -—-
 Damanhur 1 810 47 5.80 (4.27–7.51) -—-
 Damascus 1 1469 5 0.34 (0.16–0.81) -—-
 Damauli 1 150 27 18 (12.74–24.97) -—-
 Damghan 1 764 70 9.16 (7.35–11.45) -—-
 Davao del Norte 1 572 248 43.36 (39.35–47.45) -—-
 Democratic Republic of Sao Tome 1 252 108 42.86 (36.94–49.03) -—-
 Dera 1 382 211 55.24 (50.22–60.13) -—-
 Dharan 2 298 14 4.62 (2.32–7.57) 0 0.02 P =.45
 Dharan Submetropolitan 1 400 43 10.75 (8.10–14.19) -—-
 Dir 1 324 266 82.10 (77.94–86.39) -—-
 Duhok 1 1172 158 13.48 (11.59–15.51) -—-
 Eskisehir 1 132 10 7.58 (4.06–13.30) -—-
 Fangouné Bamanan and Diakalèl 1 971 487 50.15 (47.01–53.29) -—-
 Gaza 1 432 53 12.27 (9.57–15.75) -—-
 Golestan 1 800 31 3.87 (2.71–5.42) -—-
 Gondar 1 304 82 26.97 (22.28–32.22) -—-
 Hakim 1 333 34 10.21 (7.52–14.03) -—-
 Hanoi 1 217 144 66.36 (59.82–72.27) -—-
 Harbu 1 400 38 9.50 (6.89–12.67) -—-
 Huaphan 1 74 18 24.32 (16.34–35.37) -—-
 Ibb 2 558 119 20.70 (2.04–51.25) 98 5.39 P <.001
 Imo 1 132 26 19.70 (13.98–27.41) -—-
 Itahari 1 200 26 13 (9.17–18.48) -—-
 Izmir 1 1127 128 11.36 (9.65–13.36) -—-
 Jahrom 1 431 1 0.23 (0.12–1.40) -—-
 Jakarta 1 157 2 1.27 (0.62–4.80) -—-
 Janakpurdham 1 155 14 9.03 (5.68–14.77) -—-
 Jaragedo 1 396 72 18.18 (14.74–22.32) -—-
 Jeddah 1 581 1 0.17 (0–0.82) -—-
 Kampongcham 1 251 138 54.98 (48.80–60.98) -—-
 Kancheepuram 1 335 133 39.70 (34.61–45.03) -—-
 Kashmir 2 482 306 53.99 (13.92–91.16) 98 9.95 P <.001
 Kaski 2 2254 123 5.17 (3.75–6.80) 0 0.02 P =.34
 Kathmandu 12 4523 929 14.53 (4.36–29.18) 99 9.90 P <.001
 Kavrepalanchowk 1 360 81 22.50 (18.50–27.10) -—-
 Kenya 1 9801 1646 16.79 (15.91–17.40) -—-
 Khan Younis 2 2740 705 24.99 (7.88–47.68) 99 2.94 P <.001
 Khartoum 2 620 248 30.42 (7.32–60.69) 97 4.79 P <.001
 Khodabandeh 1 250 17 3.27 (2.10–5.22) -—-
 Khurda 1 250 20 8 (5.39–12.17) -—-
 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 1 222 222 0 (98.23–99.99) -—-
 Kutahya 1 471 51 12.10 (9.36–15.27) -—-
 Lahore 1 300 36 12 (8.92–16.27) -—-
 Lalitpur 1 1392 40 2.87 (2.04–3.82) -—-
 Legaspi 1 64 30 46.88 (35.35–58.81) -—-
 Lipis 1 498 261 52.41 (48.02–56.76) -—-
 Lokhim 1 359 31 8.64 (6.23–12.07) -—-
 Lorestan 1 366 36 9.84 (7.16–13.29) -—-
 Lower Dir 1 184 58 31.52 (25.36–38.61) -—-
 Mahiyangana 1 145 28 19.31 (13.76–26.53) -—-
 Maksegnit and Enfranz 1 520 352 64 (59.90–67.82) -—-
 Marvdasht 1 337 6 1.78 (0.83–3.84) -—-
 Matanzas 1 107 46 42.99 (34.12–52.44) -—-
 Mthatha 1 162 65 40.12 (32.96–47.82) -—-
 Muang Pathum Thani 1 202 1 0.5 (0.1–2.79) -—-
 Nablus 2 955 48 4.84 (3.23–6.74) 5.39 0 P =.30
 Nairobi 1 406 63 15.52 (12.26–19.31) -—-
 Nakhon Pathom 1 814 29 3.56 (2.47–5.05) -—-
 Nan 1 1010 606 60 (56.96–63.01) -—-
 Nellimarla Mandal 1 124 17 13.71 (8.93–21) -—-
 Nopphitam 1 299 34 11.37 (8.06–15.31) -—-
 North‑eastern India 1 435 50 11.49 (8.77–14.78) -—-
 Nyamikoma 1 830 752 90.60 (88,46–92.44) -—-
 Ofa 1 391 357 91.30 (88.03–93.64) -—-
 Ogun State 1 1059 1006 95 (93.69–96.34) -—-
 Ombda 1 210 29 13.81 (9.70–19.06) -—-
 Omkoi 1 375 33 8.80 (6.24–12.02) -—-
 Pahang 1 300 208 69.33 (63.88–74.24) -—-
 Palajunoj 1 5228 1207 23.09 (21.84–24.14) -—-
 Peninsular 1 2902 288 10.44 (3.03–21.56) 98 1.21 P <.001
 Peshawar 1 200 140 70 (63.29–75.86) -—-
 Phitsanulok 1 352 12 3.41 (2–5.9) -—-
 Pinar del Río 1 200 163 81.50 (75.49–86.20) -—-
 Pokhara 1 100 6 6 (2.88–12.57) -—-
 Puducherry 1 1172 660 56.31 (53.47–59.15) -—-
 Qalqilia 1 1329 153 11.51 (9.69–13.14) -—-
 Qom 1 2410 119 4.94 (4.01–5.75) -—-
 Ratchaburi 1 252 12 4.76 (2.80–8.18) -—-
 Rishikesh 1 461 26 5.64 (3.89–8.15) -—-
 Roxas 1 301 262 87.04 (82.78–90.38) -—-
 Rupandehi 1 217 114 52.53 (45.91–59.06) -—-
 Rural coastal Tanzania 1 1033 396 38.33 (35.40–41.33) -—-
 Rwanda 1 109 23 21.10 (14.74–29.82) -—-
 Sakon Nakhon 1 417 121 29.02 (24.87–33.55) -—-
 Samut Sakhon 1 4014 152 3.79 (3.15–4.34) -—-
 Sana’a 2 573 162 7.75 (0–28.70) 99 4.12 P <.001
 Sanandaj 1 400 15 3.75 (2.30–6.11) -—-
 Sanliurfa 1 1820 1759 96.65 (95.73–97.39) -—-
 Saptari 1 285 8 2.81 (1.41–5.42) -—-
 Saraburi 1 263 5 1.90 (0.84–4.39) -—-
 Sarawak 1 264 117 44.32 (38.49–50.35) -—-
 Sari 1 1100 56 5.09 (3.87–6.48) -—-
 Sekota 1 402 38 9.45 (6.66–12.44) -—-
 Shahriar 1 1902 294 15.46 (13.68–16.95) -—-
 Skardu 1 300 95 31.67 (26.65–37.13) -—-
 South Khorasan 1 2169 171 7.88 (6.71–8.99) -—-
 Srinagar 1 514 191 37.16 (31.06–41.40) -—-
 Suka 1 468 360 76.92 (72.93–80.56) -—-
 Tabuk 1 812 10 1.23 (0.59–2.17) -—-
 Taifg 1 150 18 12 (7.68–18.14) -—-
 Taipei 1 44,163 93 0.21 (0–0.04) -—-
 Taiz 2 863 136 14.70 (5.44–27.41) 95 1.22 P <.001
 Tam Nong 1 400 368 92 (88.91–94.26) -—-
 Tana 1 520 458 88.08 (85.04–90.62) -—-
 Tanta 1 1520 112 7.37 (5.94–8.58) -—-
 Tapah 1 508 308 60.63 (56.34–64.83) -—-
 Tegucigalpa 1 2554 1493 58.46 (56.54–60.36) -—-
 Tehran 2 19,459 835 4.20 (3.85–4.56) 0 0.01 P =.68
 Vadodara 1 140 16 11.43 (7.35–17.91) -—-
 Varamin 1 293 16 5.46 (3.43–8.72) -—-
 Wonji Shoa Sugar 1 403 312 77.42 (73.13–81.28) -—-
 Yıgılca 1 523 89 17.02 (14–20.44) -—-
 Zakho 1 103 18 17.48 (11.56–26.08) -—-
 Total 147