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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Jul 22.
Published before final editing as: Early Educ Dev. 2025 Jul 22:10.1080/10409289.2025.2521246. doi: 10.1080/10409289.2025.2521246

Table 3.

Results Comparing English and Spanish Scores in the Fall and Spring with p-values in Parenthesis

English-dominant Balanced Spanish-dominant

Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring

Phonological Awareness E (<.001) E (<.001) ND (.357) ND (.161) ND (.702) ND (.579)
Letter-Word Identification E (<.001) E (<.001) E (<.001) E (<.001) E (<.001) E (<.001)
Narrative E E E (<.001) E (<.001) S (<.001) ND (.023)
Applied Problems E (<.001) E (<.001) ND (.020) E (<.001) S (<.001) ND (.191)

Note. E indicates English was the stronger language, S indicates Spanish was the stronger language, ND indicates no difference between English and Spanish