Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Brain and Behavior logoLink to Brain and Behavior
. 2025 Aug 21;15(8):e70708. doi: 10.1002/brb3.70708

The Effect of Ambient Temperature on Migraine Disease: A Scoping Review

James Kelbert 1,✉, Joshua A Tobin 1,2
PMCID: PMC12370836  PMID: 40842130

ABSTRACT

Introduction

Ambient temperature changes are hypothesized to affect migraine attacks, but few published primary articles assess such hypotheses. The authors examine the current germane literature and suggest further research.

Methods

A literature search was conducted on September 23, 2023, in PubMed, Embase, and Scopus using the search terms temperature [ti] AND (headach*[ti] OR migrain*[ti]). Rayyan was utilized for duplicate detection and removal and for abstract screening. Conflicting assessments of records were resolved by consensus, and full text analysis was performed. Data was extracted by hand and tabulated.

Results

Four studies met the inclusion criteria, with an additional eight found through citation analysis that analyzed tens of thousands of patients with migraine disease overall. Six studies demonstrated an association between temperature or temperature changes and migraine disease. One study identified individuals whose migraine attacks were temperature sensitive, but the association was lost when examining the whole population. The remaining five did not find any significant relationship. Every study examining patients on an individual level found a relationship between temperature and migraine disease. Studies in colder geographic areas had a greater propensity to identify cold as a trigger.

Conclusion

Current data are conflicting. Temperature may be a migraine disease trigger in a subgroup of people with migraine. Lower temperatures may trigger more migraine attacks in colder climates within a subset of people with migraine. Uncontrollable factors such as air pollution, barometric pressure, and humidity are confounding variables that impede such research. Additional studies could include indoor temperature or thermostat settings during the day and night to further stratify the effects of temperature.

Keywords: ambient temperature, migraine disease, migraine, people with migraine

This scoping review demonstrates that there may be individual‐level associations between migraine and ambient temperature in those who are temperature sensitive. This abstract was made using BioRender.

graphic file with name BRB3-15-e70708-g001.jpg

Abbreviations

PRISMA

preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta‐analyses.

1. Introduction

Migraine disease is a common disorder with high associated morbidity (Szok et al. 2023). It is the second leading cause of disability worldwide and affects 12% of the total population (Aguilar‐Shea et al. 2022). Its more severe version, chronic migraine disease, affects 1% to 2% of the population (Martinelli et al. 2022).

Numerous purported environmental migraine attack triggers exist, including weather change (Kelman 2007; Martinelli et al. 2022), but the evidence is inconsistent. Using a semi‐structured interview, Wöber et al. (2006) reported that 83% of patients reported weather as a migraine attack trigger. A meta‐analysis of migraine disease triggers noted five studies in which hot weather was reported as a trigger, seven studies in which cold weather was a reported trigger, and nine studies in which heat was a reported trigger (Pellegrino et al. 2018). However, a key inclusion criterion was that data was retrospectively self‐reported, which could lead to confounding memory bias.

Pelzer et al. (2023) hypothesized that disrupted brain internal thermoregulation triggers migraine attacks but noted that there is no way to systematically measure brain temperature in people with migraine. Nonetheless, several potential mechanisms of action exist whereby ambient temperature changes could trigger migraine disease.

There has not been an aggregate appraisal of evidence to date to determine the overall accuracy of patient‐reported events throughout the literature. In other words, the relationship between ambient temperature and migraine disease has thus far been investigated primarily in the context of weather, and there is no systematic assessment of the relationship between temperature and migraine attacks (Becker 2011). This scoping review aims to address that discrepancy.

2. Methodology

2.1. Literature Search and Paper Selection

This scoping review was conducted following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al. 2021). Institutional Review Board approval was waived, given that this is a review article and does not directly involve any personal health information or patient data. A literature search was conducted on September 23, 2023, in PubMed, Embase, and Scopus. Search terms were as follows: temperature [ti] AND (headach*[ti] OR migrain*[ti]) for PubMed, temperature:ti AND (headach*:ti OR migrain*:ti) for Embase, and TITLE(migraine OR headache) AND TITLE(temperature) for Scopus.

No additional search parameters or filters were applied. Article abstracts were uploaded to the systematic review software Rayyan (Ouzzani et al. 2016). Duplicates of records were removed prior to the screening process. Titles and abstracts of the remaining records were screened by the other reviewer. Conflicting assessments of records were resolved by consensus.

Inclusion criteria were studies involving patients diagnosed with episodic migraine disease, studies reporting any relationship of ambient temperature, studies in the English language, and studies reporting adult patients at least 18 years of age. In the case where a study involved patient populations with migraine disease and another headache disorder, the paper was included. This decision was ultimately made because there is a scarcity of literature investigating this relationship, and the inclusion of primary material that limits specificity was determined to be preferable to omitting evidence. When possible, a focused analysis of these papers on people with migraine was conducted. The exclusion criteria were animal studies, pediatric populations, studies not reported in English, and abstracts, case reports, case series, letters to the editor, editorials, meta‐analyses, and review studies. To maximize the chances of identifying all relevant studies, the reference lists of studies were manually checked to perform forward and backward citation analyses.

2.2. Data Extraction

Articles included in the abstract screening stage were exported into Excel. From each paper, the following information was extracted: year(s) studies were conducted, study type, level of evidence, sample size, age range of participants, patient demographics, temperature data investigated, migraine disease incidence, and whether individual or group temperature data was assessed. Given the paucity of comparable information, statistical analysis was not performed.

3. Results

Of the 122 total results from the search, 73 were duplicates. Of the 49 remaining, 6 studied the wrong population, 31 used the wrong intervention, 7 assessed the wrong outcomes, and 2 were abstracts, leaving 4 that met all inclusion criteria (Figure 1). From those 4, 8 additional studies were found via backward and forward citation analyses, leaving a total of 12 included articles (Table 1).

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

Open in a new tab

Preferred Reporting in Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) flowchart for all included studies.

TABLE 1.

Description of demographics and findings of all included articles.

Article Population Sample size (% female) Study design Migraine data available Temperature data available Key finding Individual temperature assessment?
Gomersall and Stuart (1973) People with migraine living within 10 miles of Aberdeen, Scotland, recruited via the British Migraine Association and the local press 56 Prospective case series Documentation of each headache with time of onset, duration, severity, and associated features. November 1969–May 1970 Local meteorology station There was no relationship between migraine attacks and temperature. No
Wilkinson and Woodrow (1979) Patients attending the Princess Margaret Migraine Clinic in London 310 Retrospective case series time of onset of migraine Temperature change from 3 h prior to the onset of the headache attack to the temperature at the time of the onset of the headache attack. There was no relationship between migraine attacks and temperature. No
De Matteis et al. (1994) Patients in a “small geographic area,” presumably near the University of L'Aquila, Italy, attending a headache clinic. 40 (62.5%) Prospective cross‐sectional Headache diary from March to June 1988 mean daily temperature value No significant correlation between maximum daily temperature and migraine frequency with no given temperature range No
Villeneuve et al. (2006) Civic Hospital, Ottawa, serving a population generally residing within 40 km 4051 (74%) Prospective case‐crossover presentation to ER for migraine from 1993 to 2000 Hourly, recorded at an airport 15 km south of the ER There was no statistically significant association with temperature or temperature changes in the number of ER visits for migraines No
Mukamal et al. (2009) patients living within 40 km of and seen at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center ED, Boston, for migraine 7054 (75%) Prospective case‐crossover Time of onset of migraine from 2000 to 2007 Hourly surface observations of the National Weather Service First Order Station at Logan Airport (East Boston). Higher mean ambient temperature in the 24 h preceding hospital presentation increased the acute risk of headache No
Zebenholzer et al. (2011) patients living within 25 km of the Vienna meteorological station 238 (87.8%) Prospective case series Headache dairy completed between October 1, 2002 and March 31, 2003. Daily average, maximum, and minimum temperatures from a recording station in the same city There was no relationship between migraine attacks and temperature. No
Hoffmann et al. (2011) people with episodic migraine attacks attending a headache clinic in Berlin 20 (75%) Retrospective case series headache diary data over 12 consecutive months between January 2006 and December 2007 with data in 4‐hour intervals Temperature provided by the German Meteorological Service and analyzed in 4‐hour intervals. In a subset of patients, lower temperature and higher relative humidity correlate with the onset of a migraine period independently of the time of the day Yes
Scheidt et al. (2013) People with migraine living in Germany Not stated; total 4720 migraine messages (68.4%) Prospective cross‐sectional Documentation of migraine onset in an electronic headache diary or web form from June 2011 to February 2012 German Meteorological Service mean daily temperature at the station closest to each patient Increase in temperature associated with increase in migraine messages sent No
Hoffmann et al. (2015) People with migraine living within 50 km of Berlin and attending a headache clinic on a stable preventive regimen 100 Retrospective case series Same as Hoffmann et al. (2011) Same as Hoffmann et al. (2011) Absolute temperature and temperature increase were migraine triggers for select people with migraine Yes
Yilmaz et al. (2015) Admitted to a regional hospital ED in Turkey with a diagnosis of migraine between January 1 and December 31, 2013 3491 (72%) Retrospective case series Time of onset of migraine Daily average, maximum, and minimum temperatures from a recording station in the same city Increased number of patients with migraine on days with higher daily maximum temperature No
Yang et al. (2015) City of Taipei 66 (75.8%) Prospective cohort 7‐month headache diary from January to Decemner 2007 Daily temperature data for Taipei provided by the Central Weather Bureau, Taiwan Temperature fluctuations accounted for a proportion of migraine incidence in winter and summer No
Lee et al. (2018) City of Seoul 18921 (72%) Retrospective Database Inquiry Patients who presented to emergency departments for migraine Hourly, from one weather monitoring station “slightly north of the center of the city” operated by the Korea Meteorological Administration Temperatures above the 75th percentile increased the effect of air pollution as a migraine trigger by 18% in migraine without aura. No
Open in a new tab

3.1. Studies With an Association Between Temperature and Migraine Disease

In Scheidt et al., people with migraine disease sent a message to the research team whenever they experienced a migraine attack. They found that a 5°C decrease 1–3 days prior was associated with a 24 ± 8% increase in migraine disease messages, whereas a 5°C increase was associated with a 19 ± 7% increase in migraine disease messages. Both changes were statistically significant. There was no significant difference in message frequency 1–3 days after said mean temperature change (Scheidt et al. 2013).

Hoffmann et al. (2011) noted lower temperatures 18 and 24 h prior to the onset of a new migraine attack period, defined as one or more migraine attacks separated by less than 24 h. While the group's subsequent 2015 study did not identify an association for the population as a whole (Hoffmann et al. 2015), both studies identified individuals for whom temperature was a trigger. For the combined population of both studies, high or increasing temperature predicted migraine attacks at 5 time points (all in the 2011 article) and 12 patient time points prior to attack onset, whereas low or decreasing temperature predicted migraine attacks in 12 patients (10 in the 2011 article and 2 in the 2015 article) and 32 patient time points.

Yang et al. found that temperature fluctuations explained 29.2% of the variance in headache attack incidence during winter and 6.0% during spring for people with migraine who perceived themselves as temperature sensitive. In contrast, temperature accounted for 14.8% of the variance in headache incidence exclusively during summer for people with migraine who perceived themselves as temperature nonsensitive (Yang et al. 2015).

Mukamal et al. (2009) determined that a 5°C increase in mean ambient temperature in the 24 h prior increased the risk of ED presentation for migraine attacks by 1.111 (1.013–1.218), and a one interquartile range increase by 1.389 (1.042–1.852).

Yilmaz et al. (2015) found significant Pearson's correlations between the daily number of patients admitted to an ED in Turkey and the daily maximum temperature (p = 0.005), mean temperature (p = 0.013), minimum temperature (p = 0.041), and daily temperature change (p = 0.003).

Lee et al. found that temperatures above the 75th percentile increased the effect of air pollution as a migraine disease trigger by 18% in migraine attacks without aura. Interactions between air pollution and temperature were shown among women (Pinteract for PM2.5 = 0.07; PM10 = 0.05; O3 = 0.09) and patients aged under 40 years (Pinteract for PM2.5 = 0.04; PM10 = 0.03; CO = 0.04). The air pollution effect in migraine attacks with or without aura was greater on high‐temperature days with statistical evidence of interaction for particles < 2.5 µm (OR 1.068 [95% CI: 1.029–1.108]) and particles < 10 µm (high: OR 1.066 [95% CI: 1.025–1.109]) (Lee et al. 2018).

3.2. Studies Without an Association Between Temperature and Migraine Disease

Conversely, other studies demonstrated no significant association between temperature changes and migraine. Gomersall and Stuart (1973) and Wilkinson and Woodrow (1979) found no association between migraine and weather, temperature, or humidity changes (Gomersall and Stuart 1973; Wilkinson and Woodrow 1979). De Matteis et al. (1994) found no significant correlation between maximum daily temperature and migraine frequency but did not state the temperature range they analyzed. Villeneuve et al. (2006) did not identify any relationship between absolute or changes in temperature and migraine attack incidence or severity, with odds ratios ranging from 0.99 to 1.04, ranging from < 1 to 24 h.

More recent studies with more advanced study designs and more patients also found a negligible effect of temperature. Zebenholzer et al. found a negligible effect of weather on migraine disease with an odds ratio of 1.02 (p = 0.023, not significant after correction for multiple testing) for migraine given day‐to‐day change of minimum air temperature. A big data analysis from Hoffmann et al. (2015) underscored that only a subgroup of people with migraine (7% of the total population), but not the population as a whole, was sensitive to absolute changes in temperature.

4. Discussion

Temperature change may trigger migraine through several molecular mechanisms. For example, the short‐chain fatty acids butanoate and propionate are produced in the colon via bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers (Zhang et al. 2023). Administration of either butanoate or propionate attenuated hyperalgesia and pain in a mouse migraine model (Lanza et al. 2021, 2022). Yi et al. (2021) found that low temperature increased propionate levels, whereas high temperature decreased butyrate levels, suggesting two mechanisms whereby heat could trigger migraine. Sugar metabolism may also play a role. Fasting and reactive hypoglycemia following large carbohydrate intakes are known migraine triggers, and ambient temperatures less than 10°C and greater than 20°C were associated with an increased frequency of hypoglycemia compared to 10°C–20°C (Hensel et al. 2017; Hufnagl and Peroutka 2002).

Given the high prevalence and associated disability of migraine disease, identifying environmental triggers alongside pharmaceutical agents is crucial. This review surveys the existing literature exploring the effect of temperature or temperature changes on migraine attack incidence and severity.

Studies conducted in cooler geographic areas tended to identify more associations with cold than with heat as a trigger, though such differences either were not statistically significant or reliably quantified (Gomersall and Stuart 1973; Villeneuve et al. 2006; Zebenholzer et al. 2011). It would also be interesting to know whether temperature increases are more of a migraine attack trigger during hot weather and whether temperature decreases are more of a migraine attack trigger during cold weather, as only one study found a weak univariate correlation between maximum and minimum temperature and migraine attack incidence (Yilmaz et al. 2015).

The 12 studies included in this review suggest that a change in mean temperature may be a migraine attack trigger. This is not entirely clear, given some studies that do not report their temperature range or have small sample sizes (De Matteis et al. 1994). Yang et al. (2015) attempted to determine if temperature fluctuations were attributable to people who experience temperature‐sensitive migraines and to those who self‐classified as not. The database study by Lee et al. (2018) found that temperature fluctuations above the 75th percentile significantly increased the effect of air pollution as a migraine trigger. Scheidt et al. (2013) also demonstrated an association between temperature changes and migraine incidence.

Yang's finding that temperature changes are more of a trigger in self‐reported temperature‐sensitive patients (29.2% in one season and 6.0% in another season) than in self‐reported temperature‐insensitive patients (14.8% in only one season) is a reminder that patients tend to know themselves. However, temperature changes may be a trigger even in those who do not consider themselves temperature sensitive (Yang et al. 2015), but further investigation is needed. Synergism between air pollution and heat is consistent with previously identified synergism of these stressors and other measures of health, such as cardiovascular mortality (Anenberg et al. 2020).

Another important consideration is the heterogeneity of migraine disease causes and the spectrum of effects they can have on each individual (Marmura 2018). As such, the best interpretation of the given data may be that a certain subset of people with migraine is temperature sensitive, exhibiting a heterogeneity of trigger effects. Indeed, the two articles that specifically examined the effects of temperature at an individual level demonstrated significance in a subset of people with migraine; one of those articles lost that significance when studied in the whole population (Hoffmann et al. 2015).

The major limitations of this study are the low number of included studies and the inconsistency of measurements between them. More controlled studies are needed to investigate the sole effect of temperature on migraine disease, mitigating the presence of potential confounders or effect modifiers. Additionally, the authorial team included studies that investigate the relationship between temperatures among multiple headache disorders. The inclusion of these studies limits the specificity of conclusions reached in this investigation and affects the overall generalizability. Although focused explanations were conducted on the subset of people with migraine, further investigation, including only people with migraine, would provide additional strength.

The heterogeneity of the study designs introduced multiple confounders that could affect the interpretability and generalizability of results. Some of these range from differences within geographical areas, climate, barometric pressure, humidity, and air pollution. Further examples are differences in migraine diagnosis criteria across studies that may include people with migraine who might not fit the criteria utilized in other studies. These confounders were detailed in Table 2 for each included study.

TABLE 2.

Description of confounding variables for all included articles.

Article Air pollution Humidity Barometric pressure Geography Climate/weather change
Gomersall and Stuart 1973 + +
Wilkinson and Woodrow (1979) + + +
De Matteis et al. (1994) + + +
Villeneuve et al. (2006) + + +
Mukamal et al. (2009) + + +
Zebenholzer et al. (2011) + + +
Hoffmann et al. (2011) + + + +
Scheidt et al. (2013) + +
Hoffmann et al. (2015) + + + +
Yilmaz et al. (2015) + + + +
Yang et al. (2015) + +
Lee et al. (2018) + + +
Open in a new tab

A limitation of all included studies is that outdoor air temperature cannot be controlled, as weather includes other elements such as pollution, humidity, and weather patterns. Thus, the association between temperature changes and migraine attack incidence does not mean that temperature changes cause more migraines. Similarly, the association between high temperatures and the increased association between pollution and migraine attack incidence does not demonstrate that heat causes pollution to cause more migraines.

Molecular mechanisms associated with temperature have also been associated with migraine attacks, such as butanoate and propionate, along with dysregulation of glycolysis/gluconeogenesis (Castor et al. 2021; Del Moro et al. 2022; Lanza et al. 2021, 2022; Martins‐Oliveira et al. 2017; Miao et al. 2022; Nassan et al. 2021; Okada et al. 1998; Peterlin et al. 2015; Ren et al. 2018; Shaw et al. 1977). There is no literature investigating the relationship between such molecular mechanisms in clinical settings. As such, further studies are needed to better characterize such relationships and could become potential therapeutic avenues for those patients living with migraine who are temperature sensitive.

Further overall research is needed to better characterize this relationship, especially comparing those who are temperature‐sensitive and those who may not be. Temperature and varying interpretations of the interplay of different ambient temperatures, such as indoor versus outdoor, create a very large space for potential observational and analytical studies. A potential experimental design could be to conduct a long‐term experiment for people with migraine in the same physical location to control for factors such as humidity. Such investigations could include the effect of indoor temperature or thermostat settings during both the day and night to further stratify effects of temperature based on environment. Trials could be conducted by separating people with migraine into low, moderate, and high indoor temperature groups and determining if there is any effect on migraine disease incidence.

5. Conclusion

The relationship between temperature and migraine incidence remains unclear. A slim majority of studies in this review demonstrated some type of relationship between temperature and migraine, but those relationships were varied and inconsistent. As such, further comparative studies looking at individual‐level effects while controlling for ambient temperature confounders are needed to further elucidate this relationship.

Author Contributions

James Kelbert: conceptualization, writing – review and editing, writing – original draft, investigation, methodology, software, validation, visualization. Joshua A. Tobin: Conceptualization, supervision, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, investigation.

Conflicts of Interest

Joshua A. Tobin has no disclosures relevant to this submission but, in efforts to be fully transparent, has a significant other who currently works for Amgen, which owns Aimovig/erenumab. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Peer Review

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/brb3.70708

Acknowledgments

The authors have nothing to report.

Kelbert, J. , and Tobin J. A.. 2025. “The Effect of Ambient Temperature on Migraine Disease: A Scoping Review.” Brain and Behavior 15, no. 8: 15, e70708. 10.1002/brb3.70708

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available upon request to the authors.

References

  1. Aguilar‐Shea, A. L. , Membrilla Md J. A., and Diaz‐de‐Teran J.. 2022. “Migraine Review for General Practice.” Atención Primaria 54, no. 2: 102208. 10.1016/j.aprim.2021.102208. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Anenberg, S. C. , Haines S., Wang E., Nassikas N., and Kinney P. L.. 2020. “Synergistic Health Effects of Air Pollution, Temperature, and Pollen Exposure: A Systematic Review of Epidemiological Evidence.” Environmental Health 19, no. 1: 130. 10.1186/s12940-020-00681-z. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Becker, W. 2011. “Weather and Migraine: Can so Many Patients be Wrong?” Cephalalgia 31, no. 4: 387–390. 10.1177/0333102410385583. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Castor, K. , Dawlaty J., Arakaki X., et al. 2021. “Plasma Lipolysis and Changes in Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid Signaling Lipids Reveal Abnormal Lipid Metabolism in Chronic Migraine.” Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience 14: 691733. 10.3389/fnmol.2021.691733. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Del Moro, L. , Rota E., Pirovano E., and Rainero I.. 2022. “Migraine, Brain Glucose Metabolism and the “Neuroenergetic” Hypothesis: A Scoping Review.” Journal of Pain 23, no. 8: 1294–1317. 10.1016/j.jpain.2022.02.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. De Matteis, G. , Vellante M., Marrelli A., et al. 1994. “Geomagnetic Activity, Humidity, Temperature and Headache: Is There any Correlation?” Headache 34, no. 1: 41–43. 10.1111/j.1526-4610.1994.hed3401041.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Gomersall, J. D. , and Stuart A.. 1973. “Variations in Migraine Attacks With Changes in Weather Conditions.” International Journal of Biometeorology 17, no. 3: 285–299. 10.1007/BF01804622. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Hensel, M. , Stuhr M., Geppert D., Kersten J. F., Lorenz J., and Kerner T.. 2017. “Reduced Frequency of Severe Hypoglycemia at Mild Ambient Temperatures Between 10 and 20°C: A Population‐Based Study Under Marine West Coast Climate Conditions.” Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications 31, no. 7: 1212–1214. 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2017.01.027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Hoffmann, J. , Lo H., Neeb L., Martus P., and Reuter U.. 2011. “Weather Sensitivity in Migraineurs.” Journal of Neurology 258, no. 4: 596–602. 10.1007/s00415-010-5798-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Hoffmann, J. , Schirra T., Lo H., Neeb L., Reuter U., and Martus P.. 2015. “The Influence of Weather on Migraine—Are Migraine Attacks Predictable?” Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology 2, no. 1: 22–28. 10.1002/acn3.139. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Hufnagl, K. N. , and Peroutka S. J.. 2002. “Glucose Regulation in Headache: Implications for Dietary Management.” Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 2, no. 3: 311–317. 10.1586/14737175.2.3.311. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Kelman, L. 2007. “The Triggers or Precipitants of the Acute Migraine Attack.” Cephalalgia 27, no. 5: 394–402. 10.1111/j.1468-2982.2007.01303.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Lanza, M. , Filippone A., Ardizzone A., et al. 2021. “SCFA Treatment Alleviates Pathological Signs of Migraine and Related Intestinal Alterations in a Mouse Model of NTG‐Induced Migraine.” Cells 10, no. 10: 2756. 10.3390/cells10102756. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Lanza, M. , Filippone A., Casili G., et al. 2022. “Supplementation With SCFAs Re‐Establishes Microbiota Composition and Attenuates Hyperalgesia and Pain in a Mouse Model of NTG‐Induced Migraine.” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 9: 4847. 10.3390/ijms23094847. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Lee, H. , Myung W., Cheong H.‐K., et al. 2018. “Ambient Air Pollution Exposure and Risk of Migraine: Synergistic Effect With High Temperature.” Environment International 121: 383–391. 10.1016/j.envint.2018.09.022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Marmura, M. J. 2018. “Triggers, Protectors, and Predictors in Episodic Migraine.” Current Pain and Headache Reports 22, no. 12: 81. 10.1007/s11916-018-0734-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Martinelli, D. , Pocora M. M., De Icco R., Putortì A., and Tassorelli C.. 2022. “Triggers of Migraine: Where Do We Stand?” Current Opinion in Neurology 35, no. 3: 360–366. 10.1097/WCO.0000000000001065. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Martins‐Oliveira, M. , Akerman S., Holland P. R., Hoffmann J. R., Tavares I., and Goadsby P. J.. 2017. “Neuroendocrine Signaling Modulates Specific Neural Networks Relevant to Migraine.” Neurobiology of Disease 101: 16–26. 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.01.005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Miao, S. , Tang W., Li H., et al. 2022. “Repeated Inflammatory Dural Stimulation‐Induced Cephalic Allodynia Causes Alteration of Gut Microbial Composition in Rats.” Journal of Headache and Pain 23, no. 1: 71. 10.1186/s10194-022-01441-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Mukamal, K. J. , Wellenius G. A., Suh H. H., and Mittleman M. A.. 2009. “Weather and Air Pollution as Triggers of Severe Headaches.” Neurology 72, no. 10: 922–927. 10.1212/01.wnl.0000344152.56020.94. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Nassan, F. L. , Kelly R. S., Koutrakis P., Vokonas P. S., Lasky‐Su J. A., and Schwartz J. D.. 2021. “Metabolomic Signatures of the Short‐Term Exposure to Air Pollution and Temperature.” Environmental Research 201: 111553. 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111553. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Okada, H. , Araga S., Takeshima T., and Nakashima K.. 1998. “Plasma Lactic Acid and Pyruvic Acid Levels in Migraine and Tension‐Type Headache.” Headache 38, no. 1: 39–42. 10.1046/j.1526-4610.1998.3801039.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Ouzzani, M. , Hammady H., Fedorowicz Z., and Elmagarmid A.. 2016. “Rayyan—A Web and Mobile App for Systematic Reviews.” Systematic Reviews 5, no. 1: 210. 10.1186/s13643-016-0384-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Page, M. J. , McKenzie J. E., Bossuyt P. M., et al. 2021. “The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews.” Systematic Reviews 10, no. 1: 89. 10.1186/s13643-021-01626-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Pellegrino, A. B. W. , Davis‐Martin R. E., Houle T. T., Turner D. P., and Smitherman T. A.. 2018. “Perceived Triggers of Primary Headache Disorders: A Meta‐Analysis.” Cephalalgia 38, no. 6: 1188–1198. 10.1177/0333102417727535. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Pelzer, N. , de Boer I., van den Maagdenberg A. M. J. M., and Terwindt G. M.. 2023. “Neurological and Psychiatric Comorbidities of Migraine: Concepts and Future Perspectives.” Cephalalgia 43, no. 6: 3331024231180564. 10.1177/03331024231180564. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Peterlin, B. L. , Mielke M. M., Dickens A. M., et al. 2015. “Interictal, Circulating Sphingolipids in Women With Episodic Migraine: A Case‐Control Study.” Neurology 85, no. 14: 1214–1223. 10.1212/WNL.0000000000002004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Ren, C. , Liu J., Zhou J., et al. 2018. “Lipidomic Analysis of Serum Samples From Migraine Patients.” Lipids in Health and Disease 17, no. 1: 22. 10.1186/s12944-018-0665-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Scheidt, J. , Koppe C., Rill S., Reinel D., Wogenstein F., and Drescher J.. 2013. “Influence of Temperature Changes on Migraine Occurrence in Germany.” International Journal of Biometeorology 57, no. 4: 649–654. 10.1007/s00484-012-0582-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Shaw, S. W. , Johnson R. H., and Keogh H. J.. 1977. “Metabolic Changes During Glucose Tolerance Tests in Migraine Attacks.” Journal of the Neurological Sciences 33, no. 1–2: 51–59. 10.1016/0022-510x(77)90181-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Szok, D. , Csáti A., Vécsei L., and Tajti J.. 2023. “Chronic Migraine as a Primary Chronic Pain Syndrome and Recommended Prophylactic Therapeutic Options: A Literature Review.” Life 13, no. 3: 665. 10.3390/life13030665. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Villeneuve, P. J. , Szyszkowicz M., Stieb D., and Bourque D. A.. 2006. “Weather and Emergency Room Visits for Migraine Headaches in Ottawa, Canada.” Headache 46, no. 1: 64–72. 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2006.00322.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Wilkinson, M. , and Woodrow J.. 1979. “Migraine and Weather.” Headache 19, no. 7: 375–378. 10.1111/j.1526-4610.1979.hed1907375.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Wöber, C. , Holzhammer J., Zeitlhofer J., Wessely P., and Wöber‐Bingöl C.. 2006. “Trigger Factors of Migraine and Tension‐Type Headache: Experience and Knowledge of the Patients.” Journal of Headache and Pain 7, no. 4: 188–195. 10.1007/s10194-006-0305-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Yang, A. C. , Fuh J.‐L., Huang N. E., Shia B.‐C., and Wang S.‐J.. 2015. “Patients With Migraine Are Right About Their Perception of Temperature as a Trigger: Time series Analysis of Headache Diary Data.” Journal of Headache and Pain 16: 533. 10.1186/s10194-015-0533-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Yi, W. , Cheng J., Wei Q., et al. 2021. “Effect of Temperature Stress on Gut–Brain Axis in Mice: Regulation of Intestinal Microbiome and central NLRP3 Inflammasomes.” Science of the Total Environment 772: 144568. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144568. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Yilmaz, M. , Gurger M., Atescelik M., Yildiz M., and Gurbuz S.. 2015. “Meteorologic Parameters and Migraine Headache: ED Study.” American Journal of Emergency Medicine 33, no. 3: 409–413. 10.1016/j.ajem.2014.12.056. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Zebenholzer, K. , Rudel E., Frantal S., et al. 2011. “Migraine and Weather: A Prospective Diary‐Based Analysis.” Cephalalgia 31, no. 4: 391–400. 10.1177/0333102410385580. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Zhang, D. , Jian Y.‐P., Zhang Y.‐N., et al. 2023. “Short‐Chain Fatty Acids in Diseases.” Cell Communication and Signaling 21, no. 1: 212. 10.1186/s12964-023-01219-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available upon request to the authors.

Articles from Brain and Behavior are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES