Table 1.
Overview of study designs and stroke populations.
| Study | Year | Study design | Sample size | Sex (male; %) | Age (y) | Stroke phenotype | Comorbidities | Function scoring tool |
| Pedro et al [38] | 2025 | Retrospective; pilot | 163 | 39.3 | Mean 74 (SD 18) | ISa | AFb, HFc, HTNd, DMe, DLPf, CADg, and ACh | NIHSSi: 14.0 (9.0); ASPECTSj: 9.0 (2.0); mRSk,l |
| Chen et al [39] | 2024 | Retrospective | 124 (22 simulated) | NRm | Median 66 (IQR NR)n | IS and HSo | HTN, HF, and ESRDp | NIHSS: median 12 (IQR NR)n; mRS: median 1 (IQR NR)n |
| Strotzer et al [40] | 2024 | Retrospective | Uncertainq | NR | NR | IS and HS | NR | NR |
| Kuzan et al [41] | 2025 | Retrospective | Uncertainr | NR | NR | IS | NR | NR |
| Fei et al [42] | 2024 | Prospective; cross-sectional | 30s | 60 | 68.03 (3.74) | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Lee et al [43] | 2024 | Retrospective | 46 | 63.1 | 56.7 (13.9) | IS and HS | HTN, DM, DLP, AF, CAD, and othert | NIHSS, mRS, MRCu Scale for Muscle Strength, GCSv, K-MMSEw, FABx, and othert |
| Haim et al [44] | 2024 | Retrospective | 30 | NR | NR | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Chen et al [45] | 2023 | Experimental | 20 simulated | 50 | 65.3 (11.0) | HS | NR | GCS: 12.5 (5); ICHy score: 2 (2); H&Hz: 2.5 (2) |
| Blacker et al [46] | 2024 | Observational | 2 simulated | 50 | 70.5 (4.5) | IS | AF and AC | NR |
| Zhang et al [37] | 2023 | Observational; comparative case | 1 textbook case | 100 | 62 (—aa) | IS | DM and HTN | SIASab,ac |
| Sivarajkumar et al [47] | 2024 | Retrospective | 13,605ad | 49 | 75 (16) | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Guo et al [48] | 2023 | Retrospective | Uncertainae | — | — | IS and HS | NR | NR |
| Lehnen et al [49] | 2024 | Retrospective | 130 (derivation: 100; external validation: 30) | 50 | 74.2 (13.2) | IS | NR | NIHSS: median 8 (IQR 0-24); ASPECTS: median 9 (IQR 3-10)af |
| Fiedler et al [50] | 2024 | Retrospective; pilot | 50 | 62 | Median 4.5 (IQR 0.75-11) | CAISag, PAISah, and CVSTai | NR | PSOMaj: median 0.75 (IQR 0-1.5) |
| Wang et al [51] | 2024 | Retrospective | 382 | 54.45 | 72.23 (13.35) | IS | NR | NR |
| Goh et al [52] | 2024 | Retrospective | 16 | 37.5 | 76.1 (11.4) | IS | AF, DM, and HTN | NR |
| Baro et al [53] | 2025 | Retrospective | Uncertainak | NR | NR | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Meddeb et al [54] | 2025 | Retrospective | Uncertainal | NR | NR | IS | NR | NR |
| Kim et al [55] | 2025 | Retrospective | 36,922 | 58.8 | 68.17 (12.86) | IS | HTN, AF, DM, DLP, CAD, AC, PADam, and HF | NIHSS: 2 (5); mRS: 2 (3) |
| Argymbay et al [56] | 2024 | Retrospective | 4798 | 65.1 | 47.1 (23.7) | IS | HTN, DM, DLP, and obesity | NIHSS: 18.1 (11.3); mRS: 3.7 (1.9) |
| Neo et al [57] | 2024 | Prospective; mixed methods | 50 | NR | NR | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Wu et al [58] | 2023 | Observational | —an | — | — | — | — | — |
| Chen et al [59] | 2025 | Prospective; experimental | 1ao | NR | NR | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Rifai et al [60] | 2024 | Prospective; experimental | Uncertainap | NR | NR | Unclarified type | NR | NR |
| Anghelescu et al [36] | 2023 | Observational | —aq | — | — | — | — | — |
aIS: ischemic stroke.
bAF: atrial fibrillation.
cHF: heart failure.
dHTN: hypertension.
eDM: diabetes mellitus.
fDLP: dyslipidemia.
gCAD: coronary artery disease.
hAC: active cancer.
iNIHSS: National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale.
jASPECTS: Alberta Stroke Program Early Computed Tomography Score.
kmRS: modified Rankin Scale.
lA total of 121 patients had an mRS score of 0 or 1, and 42 had a score of 2 or 3.
mNR: not reported.
nDescription of real patients (n=102).
oHS: hemorrhagic stroke.
pESRD: end-stage renal disease.
qA total of 100 magnetic resonance and computed tomography images were included, comprising 50 with lesions (25 ischemic stroke, 25 brain hemorrhage) and 50 normal controls (25 matched to each lesion group).
rA total of 266 radiological images from patients with acute stroke were included.
sA total of 90 participants were included, comprising 30 patients with stroke and 60 healthy controls.
tPublished case report heterogeneity led to reporting barriers.
uMRC: Medical Research Council.
vGCS: Glasgow Coma Scale.
wK-MMSE: Korean version of the Mini-Mental State Examination.
xFAB: Frontal Assessment Battery.
yICH: intracranial hemorrhage.
zH&H: Hunt and Hess scale.
aaNot applicable.
abSIAS: Stroke Impairment Assessment Set.
acA multicriteria assessment set included quantitative scores and qualitative descriptions.
adIn total, 50 annotated electronic health record sections were extracted from the records of 13,605 patients with stroke.
aeParts from triplets, subrelations, and unlabeled text from 3 Chinese stroke-related medical datasets were included.
afDescription of derivation (n=100).
agCAIS: childhood arterial ischemic stroke.
ahPAIS: perinatal arterial ischemic stroke.
aiCVST: cerebral venous sinus thrombosis.
ajPSOM: Pediatric Stroke Outcome Measure.
akAt least 4038 stroke-related hospitalizations of insured beneficiaries were included in the study.
alA total of 1050 mechanical thrombectomy reports from patients with acute ischemic stroke were included.
amPAD: peripheral arterial disease.
anTwo questions from the American Stroke Association website were included.
aoThree healthy participants were also involved in the test of the generative large language model–based hand exoskeleton controls.
apDid not report whether the 12 participants were patients with stroke.
aqSix questions on evidence synthesis during systematic reviews were included.