Table 2.
Risk factors for diabetes and impaired fasting glucose
| Variables | Impaired fasting glucose, prevalence ratio (95% CI) |
Diabetes, prevalence ratio (95% CI) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
Model 1*
|
Model 2*
|
Model 3*
|
Model 1
|
Model 2
|
Model 3
|
| Age in years |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
18–29
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
30–39
|
3.3 (1.5, 7.5)† |
2.9 (1.3, 6.4)† |
2.9 (1.3, 6.6)† |
3.6 (1.4, 9.2)† |
4.0 (1.4, 10.9)† |
4.0 (1.5, 11.1)† |
|
40–49
|
4.4 (1.7, 11.6)† |
3.3 (1.1, 9.8)‡ |
3.4 (1.1, 10.3)‡ |
8.6 (3.6, 20.4)† |
7.8 (2.9, 20.8)† |
7.6 (2.8, 20.2)† |
|
50–59
|
7.5 (3.0, 19.1)† |
6.0 (2.0, 17.7)† |
6.0 (2.0, 17.7)† |
18.0 (7.8, 42.0)† |
14.4 (5.4, 38.7)† |
14.3 (5.4, 38.1)† |
|
60–69
|
7.6 (3.1, 18.4)† |
6.5 (2.2, 19.3)† |
6.3 (2.1, 18.9)† |
22.7 (10.0, 51.4)† |
17.3 (6.5, 45.8)† |
16.6 (6.3, 44.0)† |
| Sex |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Female
|
1.0 (0.7, 1.5) |
0.8 (0.4, 1.5) |
0.8 (0.5, 1.4) |
1.4 (1.1, 1.8)‡ |
1.2 (0.7, 1.8) |
1.2 (0.8, 1.9) |
| Highest educational level |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No formal schooling
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Primary school completed
|
0.7 (0.4, 1.2) |
0.9 (0.5, 1.6) |
0.9 (0.5, 1.6) |
0.4 (0.3, 0.6)‡ |
0.8 (0.5, 1.1) |
0.8 (0.6, 1.2) |
|
Secondary school completed
|
0.6 (0.3, 0.9)‡ |
0.7 (0.4, 1.2) |
0.7 (0.4, 1.2) |
0.7 (0.5, 1.0) |
1.5 (1.0, 2.3)‡ |
1.6 (1.1, 2.3)‡ |
|
High school or higher education completed
|
0.5 (0.2, 1.0) |
0.5 (0.2, 1.1) |
0.5 (0.2, 1.2) |
0.4 (0.3, 0.6)‡ |
1.0 (0.6, 1.6) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.6) |
| Marital status |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Currently married
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Others (never married/separated divorced/widowed)
|
0.9 (0.6, 1.3) |
1.6 (0.9, 2.6) |
1.6 (0.9, 2.7) |
0.7 (0.5, 0.9)† |
1.1 (0.8, 1.5) |
1.1 (0.8, 1.5) |
| Employment status |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Government employee
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Non-government employee
|
0.4 (0.2, 0.8)‡ |
0.3 (0.1, 0.8)‡ |
0.3 (0.1, 0.7)† |
0.9 (0.4, 2.0) |
1.6 (0.8, 3.4) |
1.6 (0.7, 3.3) |
|
Self-employed
|
0.4 (0.2, 0.8)‡ |
0.3 (0.1, 0.5)§ |
0.2 (0.1, 0.5)§ |
1.2 (0.6, 2.4) |
1.5 (0.7, 2.9) |
1.4 (0.7, 2.8) |
|
Unpaid (non-paid, students, homemakers, retirees, unemployed)
|
0.3 (0.1, 0.6)§ |
0.2 (0.1, 0.4)§ |
0.2 (0.1, 0.4)§ |
1.8 (0.9, 3.4) |
1.8 (0.8, 3.8) |
1.7 (0.8, 3.7) |
| BMI |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Underweight (<18.5 kg/m2)
|
0.7 (0.3, 1.6) |
0.9 (0.4, 2.3) |
0.9 (0.4, 2.3) |
0.5 (0.2, 1.1) |
0.7 (0.3, 1.7) |
0.8 (0.3, 1.8) |
|
Normal (18.5–<23 kg/m2)
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Overweight (23–<27.5 kg/m2)
|
1.5 (1.0, 2.4) |
1.4 (0.8, 2.5) |
1.4 (0.9, 2.4) |
1.7 (1.3, 2.3)§ |
1.4 (1.0, 1.9) |
1.4 (1.0, 2.0)† |
|
Obese (≥27.5 kg/m2)
|
3.2 (2.1, 4.9)§ |
3.1 (1.8, 5.1)§ |
3.1 (1.8, 5.2)§ |
2.5 (1.7, 3.7)§ |
1.7 (1.1, 2.5)‡ |
1.7 (1.1, 2.5)‡ |
| Smoking tobacco product use |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Never
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Former user
|
1.1 (0.6, 1.9) |
0.8 (0.5, 1.5) |
0.8 (0.5, 1.5) |
1.2 (0.8, 1.8) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.6) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.6) |
|
Current user
|
1.1 (0.6, 1.8) |
1.0 (0.4, 2.2) |
1.0 (0.4, 2.1) |
1.0 (0.7, 1.4) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.6) |
1.0 (0.6, 1.6) |
| Smokeless tobacco product use |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Never
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Former user
|
2.0 (1.0, 4.2) |
1.3 (0.6, 2.9) |
1.3 (0.6, 2.8) |
1.6 (0.8, 2.8) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.6) |
0.8 (0.5, 1.4) |
|
Current user
|
1.2 (0.7, 2.3) |
0.8 (0.4, 1.5) |
0.8 (0.4, 1.6) |
2.4 (1.6, 3.7)§ |
1.0 (0.6, 1.5) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.5) |
| Alcohol consumption |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Occasionally (<once per day)
|
0.7 (0.4, 1.1) |
0.9 (0.5, 1.4) |
0.9 (0.5, 1.4) |
0.7 (0.5, 1.0)‡ |
1.1 (0.8, 1.5) |
1.1 (0.8, 1.5) |
|
Daily (≥once per day)
|
1.2 (0.6, 2.2) |
1.3 (0.6, 3.0) |
1.3 (0.5, 3.1) |
1.7 (1.0, 2.9)‡ |
1.8 (1.1, 3.1)‡ |
2.0 (1.2, 3.3)‡ |
| Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Occasionally (<once per day)
|
0.8 (0.5, 1.3) |
1.1 (0.7, 1.6) |
1.1 (0.7, 1.6) |
0.4 (0.3, 0.6)§ |
0.7 (0.5, 1.0)‡ |
0.8 (0.6, 1.0) |
|
Daily (≥once per day)
|
0.5 (0.3, 0.8)† |
0.7 (0.4, 1.1) |
0.7 (0.4, 1.1) |
0.5 (0.3, 0.7)§ |
0.9 (0.6, 1.3) |
0.9 (0.7, 1.3) |
| Fruits consumption |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low (<1.5 servings)
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Moderate (1.5–2.5 servings on average per day)
|
1.1 (0.6, 2.0) |
1.1 (0.7, 2.0) |
1.1 (0.7, 1.9) |
1.2 (0.8, 1.8) |
1.1 (0.8, 1.7) |
1.2 (0.8, 1.8) |
|
Adequate (≥2.5 servings on average per day)
|
1.4 (0.9, 2.2) |
1.5 (1.0, 2.2) |
1.5 (1.0, 2.3) |
1.0 (0.7, 1.5) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.2) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.3) |
| Vegetable consumption |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low (<1.5 servings)
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Moderate (1.5–2.5 servings on average per day)
|
1.1 (0.6, 1.9) |
1.1 (0.6, 2.1) |
1.1 (0.6, 2.1) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.2) |
1.0 (0.7, 1.4) |
1.0 (0.8, 1.4) |
|
Adequate (≥2.5 servings on average per day)
|
1.3 (0.8, 2.1) |
1.2 (0.7, 2.1) |
1.2 (0.7, 2.1) |
1.2 (0.9, 1.7) |
1.4 (1.0, 2.0)‡ |
1.4 (1.0, 1.9) |
| Physical activity |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Adequate
|
2.4 (1.1, 5.3)‡ |
2.4 (1.1, 5.0)‡ |
2.4 (1.1, 5.1)‡ |
0.8 (0.5, 1.3) |
0.8 (0.5, 1.2) |
0.8 (0.5, 1.3) |
| Comorbid hypertension |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
ref |
|
Yes
|
2.5 (1.8, 3.5)§ |
1.2 (0.9, 1.7) |
1.2 (0.9, 1.6) |
5.1 (4.0, 6.6)§ |
2.3 (1.7, 3.2)§ |
2.4 (1.8, 3.1)§ |
| Household economic status in quantiles |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Poorest
|
1.0 (0.6, 1.7) |
|
1.0 (0.5, 1.7) |
2.1 (1.5, 3.0)§ |
|
1.6 (1.1, 2.2)† |
|
Poorer
|
1.6 (0.9, 3.0) |
|
1.5 (0.8, 2.8) |
1.1 (0.7, 1.6) |
|
0.9 (0.6, 1.3) |
|
Middle
|
ref |
|
ref |
ref |
|
ref |
|
Richer
|
1.2 (0.7, 2.0) |
|
1.0 (0.6, 1.7) |
1.2 (0.8, 1.7) |
|
1.0 (0.7, 1.4) |
|
Richest
|
1.2 (0.6, 2.4) |
|
1.0 (0.5, 2.0) |
1.5 (1.0, 2.2) |
|
1.1 (0.7, 1.5) |
| Place of residence |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rural
|
ref |
|
ref |
ref |
|
ref |
|
Urban
|
1.2 (0.8, 1.9) |
|
1.2 (0.8, 1.8) |
1.5 (1.1, 2.0)‡ |
|
1.3 (1.0, 1.8) |
| Region |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Central Plain
|
ref |
|
ref |
ref |
|
ref |
|
Tonle Sap
|
1.1 (0.7, 1.7) |
|
1.2 (0.8, 1.8) |
0.9 (0.6, 1.3) |
|
1.3 (1.0, 1.8) |
|
Coastal and sea
|
0.9 (0.5, 1.7) |
|
1.0 (0.5, 1.8) |
0.5 (0.3, 1.0)† |
|
0.7 (0.4, 1.3) |
| Plateau and mountains | 0.8 (0.4, 1.6) | 1.2 (0.7, 2.0) | 0.7 (0.4, 1.1) | 1.0 (0.7, 1.6) | ||
BMI – body mass index, CI – confidence interval, ref – reference
*Model 1. Unadjusted model. Model 2. Adjusted for individual-level factors (participant’s age, sex, highest educational, marital status, employment status, body mass index, smoking tobacco product use, smokeless tobacco product use, alcohol consumption, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, fruits consumption, vegetable consumption, physical activity, and comorbid hypertension. Model 3. Further adjusted for household- and contextual-factors (household income quintile, place of residence, and region).
†P < 0.01.
‡P < 0.05.
§P < 0.001.