TABLE 2.
Percent of US workers with estimated exposure by psychosocial hazard and sociodemographic group, 2022.
| Percent of workers, % |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Race and ethnicity |
Sex |
Education level |
Nativity and citizenship
status |
Age |
|||||||||||||||||
| All | AIAN | Asian | Black | Multi-racial | NHPI | White | Hispanic | REM groups | Female | Male | <High school | High school | Some college | ≥Bachelor’s | FBNC | FBC | Native-born | 18–24 | 25–44 | 45–64 | 65+ | |
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
| N1 = | 156,114 | 1681 | 10,547 | 19,712 | 3285 | 701 | 94,504 | 28,923 | 61,611 | 72,937 | 83,178 | 10,036 | 41,037 | 40,759 | 64,283 | 14,507 | 14,124 | 127,483 | 17,201 | 69,924 | 58,407 | 10,582 |
| Job demand and control exposures | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| High psychological job demands2 | 19.8 | 18.8 | 18.5 | 20.6 | 18.7 | 19.5 | 20.1 | 18.6 | 19.3 | 16.3 | 22.9 | 17.9 | 20.1 | 21.1 | 19.1 | 17.3 | 21.5 | 19.9 | 14.6 | 20.4 | 20.6 | 19.7 |
| High time pressure | 43.2 | 43.1 | 37.4 | 43.1 | 41.9 | 46.3 | 43.2 | 45.7 | 43.3 | 36.7 | 49.0 | 45.7 | 48.8 | 43.3 | 39.3 | 42.8 | 42.3 | 43.4 | 38.0 | 43.9 | 44.2 | 42.2 |
| Low job control2 | 28.6 | 38.1 | 22.6 | 37.3 | 33.1 | 37.7 | 22.5 | 44.7 | 37.8 | 27.7 | 29.3 | 66.2 | 46.1 | 31.1 | 9.9 | 49.3 | 30.5 | 26 | 49.2 | 26.5 | 25.5 | 26 |
| Low/mode rate decision impact | 3.3 | 4.8 | 4.2 | 3.1 | 3.5 | 3.2 | 2.6 | 5.7 | 4.5 | 4.9 | 1.9 | 8.7 | 4.3 | 3.1 | 2.0 | 7.9 | 4.2 | 2.7 | 4.0 | 3.1 | 3.3 | 3.7 |
| Low decision frequency ≤1x/mo | 5.0 | 7.5 | 6.3 | 4.1 | 5.0 | 4.3 | 4.0 | 8.3 | 6.4 | 5.3 | 4.7 | 13.1 | 6.2 | 4.4 | 3.3 | 11.7 | 6.1 | 4.1 | 5.1 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 5.0 |
| Limited decision freedom | 2.3 | 3.4 | 2.1 | 1.8 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 1.8 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 6.9 | 3.5 | 2.5 | 0.6 | 5.0 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 5.8 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 1.9 |
| Highly structured work | 2.4 | 2.4 | 2.7 | 2.9 | 3.0 | 3.3 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 2.9 | 2.9 | 2.0 | 4.1 | 3.5 | 3.3 | 1.0 | 2.9 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 7.1 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 2.0 |
| Repetitive tasks | 12.8 | 12.4 | 12.3 | 14.2 | 13.2 | 14.7 | 12.9 | 11.8 | 12.7 | 19.2 | 7.3 | 4.8 | 12.5 | 17.1 | 11.6 | 6.7 | 11.7 | 13.7 | 12.8 | 12.9 | 12.8 | 12.5 |
| Machine pacing | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.4 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 2.8 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.8 |
| High job strain2 | 4.9 | 6.2 | 3.3 | 7.0 | 4.8 | 6.6 | 4.1 | 6.9 | 6.2 | 2.5 | 7.0 | 9.9 | 8.5 | 5.2 | 1.6 | 7.2 | 6.0 | 4.5 | 4.2 | 4.6 | 5.3 | 5.9 |
| Low substantive complexity2 | 27.8 | 38.5 | 20.9 | 35.5 | 32.6 | 33.9 | 22.1 | 43.7 | 36.5 | 27.2 | 28.3 | 64.4 | 45.6 | 30.4 | 9.0 | 47.8 | 28.7 | 25.4 | 48.4 | 25.1 | 25.1 | 26.5 |
| Social environment exposures | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| High emotional labor2 | 36.6 | 28.7 | 33.7 | 33.2 | 31.8 | 31.0 | 41.0 | 25.6 | 29.8 | 43.1 | 30.9 | 12.2 | 22.1 | 32.1 | 52.4 | 18.9 | 34.7 | 38.8 | 21.6 | 37.6 | 39.3 | 39.7 |
| Conflict situations ≥1x/week | 4.2 | 2.7 | 3.3 | 4.4 | 3.6 | 2.1 | 4.8 | 2.6 | 3.3 | 3.8 | 4.6 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 3.0 | 7.2 | 1.9 | 3.5 | 4.6 | 1.3 | 4.3 | 4.8 | 5.0 |
| Deal with unpleasant/angry people ≥1x/week | 10.0 | 8.1 | 9.2 | 14.4 | 9.9 | 10.8 | 9.8 | 7.7 | 10.2 | 14.2 | 6.3 | 4.1 | 7.4 | 11.6 | 11.5 | 4.9 | 10.6 | 10.5 | 9.5 | 10.9 | 9.4 | 8.1 |
| Deal with physically aggressive people ≥1x/month | 2.5 | 2.5 | 1.6 | 5.2 | 2.7 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 3.3 | 1.8 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 1.1 | 2.5 | 2.7 | 2.4 | 2.9 | 2.3 | 1.4 |
| Highly competitive workplace | 3.8 | 2.4 | 3.7 | 2.5 | 2.9 | 3.6 | 4.5 | 2.6 | 2.8 | 3.3 | 4.3 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 3.1 | 5.7 | 2.6 | 3.8 | 4.0 | 1.6 | 3.5 | 4.5 | 5.6 |
| Work schedule and wage exposures | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Irregular work schedule | 13.9 | 20.2 | 8.3 | 11.6 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 12.9 | 20.5 | 15.3 | 8.5 | 18.6 | 30.7 | 19.1 | 13.9 | 7.8 | 23.7 | 12.3 | 12.9 | 17.7 | 13.5 | 12.9 | 15.6 |
| Low-wage occupation | 30.6 | 39.4 | 27.0 | 41.4 | 36.8 | 40.9 | 25.1 | 42.6 | 39.1 | 37.4 | 24.7 | 56.1 | 46.4 | 36.9 | 12.6 | 42.7 | 32.0 | 29.1 | 60.0 | 27.8 | 25.7 | 28.7 |
| Long work hours >48 h/week | 12.7 | 9.2 | 9.6 | 9.3 | 11.8 | 12.4 | 14.7 | 9.7 | 9.7 | 8.2 | 16.7 | 9.0 | 11.5 | 11.7 | 14.7 | 9.1 | 11.2 | 13.3 | 5.1 | 12.6 | 15.5 | 10.4 |
Note: With the exception of the non-Hispanic White group, race includes persons identifying as non-Hispanic or Hispanic/Latino, and the Hispanic/Latino group includes persons identifying as any race. REM groups include persons identifying as American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Black/African American, multiracial, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, or Hispanic/Latino. For all psychosocial exposures except long work hours, the estimates reflect the percent of workers employed in occupations characterized by exposure to the respective hazards. For long work hours, the estimates reflect the percent of employees exposed to this hazard.
Abbreviations: AIAN, American Indian/Alaska Native; ≥bachelor’s, bachelor’s or advanced degree; Black, Black/African American; FBC, foreign-born, citizen; FBNC, foreign-born, noncitizen; high school, high school diploma or equivalent; <high school, less than high school diploma or equivalent; Hispanic, Hispanic/Latino; NHPI, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander; REM, racial and ethnic minoritized; some college, some college or associate degree; White, non-Hispanic White.
Population size is expressed in thousands.
Exposure is constructed from multiple Occupational Information Network (O*NET) elements.