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. 2023 Apr 20;36:3. doi: 10.5334/irsp.716

Table 2.

Variables depending on social-classEducation (N = 2170), social-classOccupation (N = 1802).

SOCIAL-CLASSEDUCATION SOCIAL-CLASSOCCUPATION
VARIABLES WORKING-CLASS MIDDLE/UPPER-CLASS T(DF) P COHEN’S D [95% CI] WORKING-CLASS MIDDLE/UPPER-CLASS T(DF) P COHEN’S D[95% CI]
1. Digital Equipment
Desktop computer
    - Access 405 (32.5%) 308 (33.4%) –0.44 (1978.93) .663 –0.02 [–0.10; 0.07] 305 (32.0%) 291 (34.2%) –0.99 (1769.99) .323 –0.05 [–0.14; 0.05]
    - Number 1.53 (0.83) 1.57 (0.91) –0.94 (1886.51) .347 –0.04 [–0.13; 0.04] 1.53 (0.83) 1.59 (0.90) –1.53 (1731.33) .126 –0.07 [–0.17; 0.02]
    - Users 1.66 (1.12) 1.69 (1.17) –0.56 (1933.98) .579 –0.02 [–0.11; 0.06] 1.68 (1.14) 1.72 (1.20) –0.72 (1752.73) .470 –0.03 [–0.13; 0.06]
    - Number/Users 1.06 (0.55) 1.08 (0.61) –0.78 (1866.31) .433 –0.03 [–0.11; 0.05] 1.06 (0.55) 1.08 (0.62) –0.77 (1499.10) .444 –0.04 [–0.13; 0.06]
Portable computer
    - Access 1221 (97.9%) 910 (98.6%) –1.21 (2142.74) .228 –0.02 [–0.10; 0.07] 932 (97.9%) 838 (98.6%) –1.12 (1788.24) .264 –0.05 [–0.14; 0.04]
    - Number 2.69 (1.00) 2.90 (1.11) –4.58 (1871.43) <.001*** –0.20 [–0.28; 0.12] 2.67 (0.99) 2.88 (1.11) –4.31 (1711.12) <.001*** –0.20 [–0.30; –0.11]
    - Users 2.12 (0.98) 2.06 (0.95) 1.60 (2021.95) .109 0.07 [–0.02; 0.15] 2.14 (0.97) 2.05 (0.97) 1.80 (1774.95) .072 t 0.09 [–0.01; 0.18]
    - Number/Users 1.53 (1.00) 1.75 (1.21) –4.39 (1763.68) <.001*** –0.20 [–0.28; 0.11] 1.50 (0.98) 1.75 (1.21) –4.62 (1413.13) <.001*** –0.23 [–0.33; –0.14]
Tablet computer
    - Access 423 (33.9%) 340 (36.8%) –1.40 (1965.83) .161 –0.06 [–0.15; 0.02] 315 (33.1%) 318 (37.4%) –1.92 (1764.71) .055 t –0.09 [–0.18; 0.00]
    - Number 1.54 (0.81) 1.56 (0.83) –0.67 (1973.59) .505 –0.03 [–0.11; 0.06] 1.50 (0.78) 1.59 (0.85) –2.30 (1731.29) .021* –0.11 [–0.20; –0.02]
    - Users 1.46 (0.86) 1.55 (0.98) –2.28 (1832.25) .023* –0.10 [–0.19; –0.02] 1.47 (0.87) 1.55 (0.97) –1.83 (1717.64) .068 t –0.09 [–0.18; 0.01]
    - Number/Users 1.14 (0.58) 1.11 (0.55) 1.21 (2041.07) 0.226 0.05 [–0.03; 0.14] 1.14 (0.58) 1.11 (0.54) 0.90 (1654.25) .044* 0.04 [–0.05; 0.14]
Mobile phone
    - Access 1237 (99.2%) 913 (98.9%) 0.66 (1809.13) .507 0.03 [–0.06; 0.11] 944 (99.2%) 841 (98.9%) 0.48 (1712.12) .634 0.02 [–0.07; 0.12]
    - Number 3.24 (1.29) 3.25 (1.32) –0.16 (1960.02) .876 –0.01 [–0.09; 0.08] 3.24 (1.29) 3.28 (1.33) –0.62 (1762.89) .537 –0.03 [–0.12; 0.06]
    - Users 2.05 (1.13) 1.97 (1.09) 1.63 (2030.58) .104 0.07 [–0.02; 0.16] 2.03 (1.13) 2.01 (1.13) 0.39 (1775.79) .698 0.02 [–0.07; 0.11]
    - Number/Users 2.04 (1.42) 2.11 (1.47) –1.21 (1950.68) .225 –0.05 [–0.14; 0.03] 2.05 (1.43) 2.12 (1.48) –1.06 (1580.97) .288 –0.05 [–0.15; 0.04]
Access to IC 1225 (98.2%) 907 (98.3%) –0.05 (1995.80) .957 –0.00 [–0.09; 0.08] 938 (98.5%) 831 (97.8%) 1.19 (1638.91) .232 0.06 [–0.04; 0.15]
Access to HSI 690 (55.3%) 529 (57.3%) –0.92 (1991.99) .358 –0.04 [–0.13; 0.05] 543 (57.0%) 486 (57.2%) –0.06 (1777.26) .953 –0.00 [–0.10; 0.09]
2. Material equipment
Desk to study 1157 (92.8%) 877 (95.0%) –2.18 (2132.94) .029* –0.09 [–0.18; –0.01] 882 (92.6%) 810 (95.3%) –2.37 (1784.02) .018* –0.11 [–0.20; –0.02]
Quiet place to study 998 (80.0%) 783 (84.8%) –2.93 (2089.50) .003** –0.13 [–0.21; –0.04] 744 (78.2%) 736 (86.6%) –4.74 (1788.94) <.001*** –0.22 [–0.31; –0.13]
3. Digital use
f leisure activities 5.21 (1.58) 5.30 (1.55) –1.31 (2011.21) .190 –0.06 [–0.14; 0.03] 5.25 (1.58) 5.28 (1.56) –0.37 (1781.47) .711 –0.02 [–0.11; 0.08]
f university work 6.32 (1.04) 6.40 (0.99) –1.93 (2038.48) .054 t –0.08 [–0.17; 0.00] 6.30 (1.09) 6.38 (1.03) –1.71 (1794.65) .088 t –0.08 [–0.17; 0.01]
f information search 4.91 (1.78) 4.93 (1.81) –0.23 (1966.74) .815 –0.01 [–0.10; 0.07] 4.94 (1.77) 4.96 (1.81) –0.21 (1766.88) .836 –0.01 [–0.10; 0.08]
f staying in contact 5.41 (1.63) 5.50 (1.57) –1.31 (2027.76) .190 –0.01 [–0.10; 0.07] 5.40 (1.61) 5.56 (1.50) –2.09 (1797.11) .037* –0.10 [–0.19; –0.01]
4. Self-construal
Independence 5.61 (0.85) 5.73 (0.78) –3.23 (2067.19) .001** –0.14 [–0.22; –0.05] 5.62 (0.83) 5.75 (0.77) –3.13 (1799.94) .002** –0.15 [–0.24; –0.05]
Interdependence 4.60 (1.35) 4.14 (1.36) 7.90 (1976.60) <.001*** 0.34 [0.26; 0.43] 4.67 (1.32) 4.19 (1.35) 7.60 (1762.85) <.001*** 0.36 [0.27; 0.45]
5. Psychological factors
Sense of belonging 4.56 (1.33) 4.63 (1.22) –1.31 (2069.31) .191 –0.06 [–0.14; 0.03] 4.57 (1.30) 4.66 (1.21) –1.23 (1780.75) .221 –0.06 [–0.15; 0.03]
Self-efficacy 4.56 (1.34) 4.61 (1.36) –0.76 (1972.52) .448 –0.03 [–0.12; 0.05] 4.55 (1.35) 4.64 (1.38) –1.59 (1758.40) .113 –0.08 [–0.17; 0.02]
Intention to drop-out 3.83 (1.83) 3.50 (1.71) 4.31 (2056.43) <.001*** 0.19 [0.10; 0.27] 3.86 (1.83) 3.43 (1.72) 6.08 (1792.80) <.001*** 0.29 [0.19; 0.38]
6. Class attendance
Attending online class 5.89 (1.68) 5.92 (1.64) –0.43 (2007.05) .669 –0.02 [–0.10; 0.07] 5.82 (1.74) 5.91 (1.71) –1.16 (1783.31) .246 –0.05 [–0.15; 0.04]
Being late for online class 2.37 (1.67) 2.41 (1.68) –0.57 (1977.11) .572 –0.02 [–0.11; 0.06] 2.41 (1.69) 2.36 (1.65) 0.61 (1786.87) .541 0.03 [–0.06; 0.12]
Missing online class 2.68 (1.77) 2.67 (1.70) 0.05 (2030.15) .960 0.00 [–0.08; 0.09] 2.69 (1.77) 2.64 (1.70) 0.64 (1790.24) .525 0.03 [–0.06; 0.12]
Attending on-campus class 2.44 (1.93) 2.54 (1.98) –1.15 (1957.70) .249 –0.05 [–0.14; 0.03] 2.45 (1.97) 2.49 (1.96) –0.46 (1779.36) .643 –0.02 [–0.11; 0.07]
Being late for on-campus class 1.62 (1.31) 1.74 (1.41) –2.00 (1900.97) .045* –0.09 [–0.17; –0.00] 1.65 (1.36) 1.76 (1.43) –1.62 (1753.68) .105 –0.08 [–0.17; 0.02]
Missing on-campus class 2.21 (1.98) 2.11 (1.95) 1.12 (2004.30) .261 0.05 [–0.04; 0.13] 2.27 (2.07) 2.10 (1.91) 1.75 (1798.30) .080 t 0.08 [–0.01; 0.17]
7. Out-of-class behaviors
Individual homework 4.76 (1.79) 4.87 (1.87) –1.29 (1938.48) .197 –0.06 [–0.14; 0.03] 4.78 (1.83) 4.88 (1.84) –1.14 (1776.81) .256 –0.05 [–0.15; 0.04]
Group homework 3.00 (1.89) 2.92 (1.91) 0.99 (1974.71) .323 0.04 [–0.04; 0.13] 2.96 (1.89) 2.98 (1.92) –0.30 (1769.96) .767 –0.01 [–0.11; 0.08]
Looking over class notes 3.39 (1.73) 3.30 (1.76) 1.20 (1967.91) .231 0.05 [–0.03; 0.14] 3.38 (1.74) 3.35 (1.74) 0.43 (1776.88) .668 0.02 [–0.07; 0.11]
Keeping up on readings 3.15 (1.75) 3.17 (1.76) –0.24 (1978.61) .808 –0.01 [–0.10; 0.07] 3.18 (1.75) 3.19 (1.78) –0.17 (1769.34) .864 –0.01 [–0.10; 0.08]
8. Independent and other in-class behaviors
Asking questions 2.70 (1.69) 2.90 (1.70) –2.70 (1980.12) .007** –0.12 [–0.20; –0.03] 2.71 (1.67) 2.93 (1.75) –2.66 (1757.22) .007** –0.13 [–0.22; –0.03]
Participating in discussions 2.99 (1.78) 3.08 (1.78) –1.23 (1982.74) .220 –0.05 [–0.14; 0.03] 2.93 (1.75) 3.14 (1.81) –2.45 (1763.16) .015* –0.12 [–0.21; –0.02]
Answering questions 3.28 (1.78) 3.48 (1.75) –2.66 (2002.40) .008** –0.12 [–0.20; –0.03] 3.25 (1.76) 3.51 (1.78) –3.15 (1772.08) .002** –0.15 [–0.24; –0.06]
Switching camera on 1.94 (1.46) 2.21 (1.58) –4.11 (1897.94) <.001*** –0.18 [–0.27; –0.10] 1.91 (1.41) 2.30 (1.65) –5.26 (1680.03) <.001*** –0.25 [–0.34; –0.16]
Non-related activities 4.27 (1.67) 4.36 (1.63) –1.23 (2010.86) .219 –0.05 [–0.14; 0.03] 4.27 (1.66) 4.36 (1.62) –1.18 (1786.41) .240 –0.06 [–0.15; 0.04]
Taking notes 4.99 (1.41) 4.93 (1.41) –0.31 (1996.25) .757 –0.01 [–0.10; 0.07] 5.00 (1.44) 4.94 (1.43) 0.17 (1787.14) .861 0.01 [–0.08; 0.10]
Listening/reading carefully 5.73 (1.70) 5.76 (1.68) 1.03 (1989.26) .302 0.04 [–0.04; 0.13] 5.76 (1.73) 5.74 (1.69) 0.97 (1778.65) .334 0.05 [–0.05; 0.14]

Note. Nyes (Percentages) for categorical variables, Means (Standard Deviations) for continuous variables. Statistical differences (using Welch’s t-test, Delacre et al., 2017) within variables are highlighted as follows: t p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001. CI = confidence interval, IC = internet connection, HSI = high-speed internet, f = frequency.