Table 2.
Multilevel growth model for affective polarization toward politicians (left) and partisans (right).
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| AFFECTIVE POLARIZATION TOWARD POLITICIANS | AFFECTIVE POLARIZATION TOWARD PARTISANS | |||||||
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| PREDICTORS | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β(SE) | β (SE) |
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| Time (months) | 0.013 | 0.014 | 0.009 | 0.009 | 0.015* | 0.016* | 0.009 | 0.009 |
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |
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| Covariates | ||||||||
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| Age | 0.130*** | 0.132*** | 0.091*** | 0.089*** | 0.069*** | 0.066*** | 0.033 | 0.032 |
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| (0.019) | (0.020) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.020) | (0.018) | (0.019) | |
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| Sex (Female) | 0.025 | 0.025 | –0.018 | –0.020 | 0.042* | 0.037* | –0.003 | –0.004 |
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| (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.017) | (0.017) | (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.018) | (0.018) | |
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| Education, 8 levels | –0.041* | –0.044* | –0.018 | –0.018 | –0.055** | –0.054** | –0.033 | –0.032 |
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| (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.020) | (0.018) | (0.018) | |
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| Income | 0.057** | 0.050* | 0.049** | 0.046* | 0.021 | 0.023 | 0.020 | 0.020 |
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| (0.019) | (0.020) | (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.021) | (0.019) | (0.019) | |
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| Political ideology (left-right) | –0.098*** | –0.082*** | –0.095*** | –0.094*** | –0.158*** | –0.128*** | –0.117*** | –0.117*** |
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| (0.018) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.018) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | |
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| Rural (vs. urban) | 0.010 | 0.011 | 0.015 | 0.015 | 0.013 | 0.011 | 0.014 | 0.012 |
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| (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.016) | (0.016) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.016) | (0.016) | |
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| Media consumption (between-person) | 0.003 | 0.006 | –0.005 | –0.004 | 0.059** | 0.061** | 0.043* | 0.044* |
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| (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.018) | (0.018) | |
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| Media consumption (within-person) | 0.021** | 0.021** | 0.021** | 0.021** | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.009 | 0.009 |
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |
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| Political interest (between-person) | 0.324*** | 0.324*** | 0.161*** | 0.162*** | 0.267*** | 0.274*** | 0.113*** | 0.114*** |
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| (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.021) | (0.021) | |
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| Political interest (within-person) | 0.025*** | 0.024*** | 0.021** | 0.021** | 0.031*** | 0.031*** | 0.027*** | 0.027*** |
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |
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| Economic Threats (within-person) | ||||||||
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| Personal economic hardship | 0.008 | 0.008 | 0.008 | 0.017* | 0.017* | 0.017* | ||
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |||
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| Personal economic concerns | 0.001 | –0.001 | –0.001 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.004 | ||
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |||
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| Satisfaction with economy | 0.005 | 0.003 | 0.003 | –0.001 | –0.003 | –0.003 | ||
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |||
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| Perceived unfairness of wealth redistribution | 0.021** | 0.021** | 0.021** | 0.015* | 0.015* | 0.015* | ||
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |||
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| Economic Threats (between-person) | ||||||||
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| Personal economic hardship | –0.033 | –0.037 | –0.037 | –0.019 | –0.025 | –0.025 | ||
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| (0.025) | (0.022) | (0.022) | (0.025) | (0.023) | (0.023) | |||
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| Personal economic concerns | 0.005 | –0.005 | –0.005 | –0.011 | –0.016 | –0.016 | ||
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| (0.023) | (0.021) | (0.021) | (0.024) | (0.022) | (0.022) | |||
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| Satisfaction with economy | –0.002 | –0.042* | –0.042* | –0.044* | –0.068*** | –0.069*** | ||
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| (0.019) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.020) | (0.019) | (0.019) | |||
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| Perceived unfairness of wealth redistribution | 0.037 | 0.019 | 0.019 | 0.058** | 0.039* | 0.038* | ||
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| (0.020) | (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.021) | (0.019) | (0.019) | |||
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| Identity (within-person) | ||||||||
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| Political identity | 0.033*** | 0.033*** | 0.040*** | 0.040*** | ||||
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| (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |||||
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| Identity (between-person) | ||||||||
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| Political identity | 0.364*** | 0.363*** | 0.363*** | 0.363*** | ||||
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| (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.019) | |||||
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| Regional identity | –0.003 | –0.003 | 0.009 | 0.009 | ||||
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| (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.018) | |||||
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| National identity | 0.111*** | 0.117*** | 0.053* | 0.057** | ||||
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| (0.020) | (0.021) | (0.021) | (0.021) | |||||
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| European identity | –0.023 | –0.025 | –0.034 | –0.035 | ||||
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| (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.020) | |||||
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| Economic inequality | –0.011 | –0.024 | ||||||
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| (0.016) | (0.016) | |||||||
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| Mean income per capita | 0.018 | 0.006 | ||||||
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| (0.017) | (0.017) | |||||||
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| Random Effects | ||||||||
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| σ2 (within-person variance) | 0.023 | 0.023 | 0.023 | 0.023 | 0.027 | 0.027 | 0.027 | 0.027 |
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| τ00 (between-person variance) | 0.037 | 0.037 | 0.029 | 0.029 | 0.043 | 0.043 | 0.035 | 0.035 |
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| ICC | 0.618 | 0.617 | 0.561 | 0.561 | 0.385 | 0.385 | 0.435 | 0.435 |
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| N (observations) | 6951 | 6946 | 6933 | 6933 | 6962 | 6957 | 6944 | 6944 |
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| N (individuals) | 2054 | 2054 | 2051 | 2051 | 2050 | 2050 | 2047 | 2047 |
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| Marginal R2 | 0.152+ | 0.154 | 0.449 | 0.449 | 0.271 | 0.280 | 0.411 | 0.412 |
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Note: * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001; +R2 estimated with no random variance at the regional level.