Table 2.
Self-medication prevalence by sex in depressed and noninstitutionalized residents aged 15 and over in the European Union according to demographic, socioeconomic, and lifestyle variables.
| Independent variables | Recognized depression | Depression symptoms∗ | Both groups | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | Female | OR female | Male | Female | OR female | Male | Female | OR female | |
| Total | 40.52 (39.42–41.62) | 45.68 (44.80–46.56) | 1.23 (1.08–1.41) | 33.25 (31.59–34.95) | 49.87 (48.45–51.30) | 1.99 (1.66–2.39) | 38.46 (37.54–39.39) | 46.84 (46.09–47.58) | 1.41 (1.27–1.57) |
| Agea,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| 15–24 years | 47.73 (43.92–51.41) | 49.12 (46.11–52.23) | 1.06 (0.64–1.73) | 25.19 (20.66–30.48) | 51.67 (47.20–56.12) | 3.17 (2.53–4.08) | 40.84 (37.79–43.93) | 49.93 (47.37–52.43) | 1.44 (0.97–2.14) |
| 25–44 years | 44.35 (42.38–46.35) | 54.48 (52.74–56.20) | 1.50 (1.14–1.97) | 43.53 (39.95–47.09) | 60.76 (57.74–63.74) | 2.00 (1.28–3.15) | 44.16 (42.42–45.90) | 56.00 (54.49–57.50) | 1.60 (1.27–2.03) |
| 45–64 years | 38.12 (36.43–39.86) | 44.67 (43.24–46.11) | 1.31 (1.07–1.60) | 28.80 (26.05–31.68) | 53.57 (50.90–56.27) | 2.85 (2.07–3.92) | 35.84 (34.39–37.34) | 46.65 (45.39–47.93) | 1.56 (1.31–1.86) |
| 65–74 years | 35.81 (32.48–39.26) | 41.38 (39.06–43.72) | 1.26 (0.92–1.74) | 37.99 (33.29–42.67) | 45.42 (41.18–49.58) | 1.36 (0.91–2.02) | 36.57 (33.85–39.36) | 42.34 (40.30–44.37) | 1.27 (0.99–1.63) |
| 75+ years | 36.20 (32.79–39.79) | 35.50 (33.38–37.68) | 0.97 (0.69–1.35) | 28.67 (25.21–32.54) | 39.46 (36.88–42.03) | 1.62 (1.22–2.15) | 32.84 (30.32–35.40) | 37.17 (35.53–38.84) | 1.21 (0.96–1.52) |
| Nationality∗a,b,c,f | |||||||||
| Native-born | 39.40 (38.21–40.58) | 45.20 (44.26–46.14) | 1.27 (1.10–1.45) | 34.16 (32.34–36.00) | 49.83 (48.32–51.33) | 1.91 (1.58–2.32) | 37.92 (36.93–38.92) | 46.50 (45.70–47.29) | 1.42 (1.27–1.59) |
| Born in another EU state | 41.32 (34.88–47.65) | 55.62 (51.32–59.77) | 1.78 (0.85–3.71) | 30.14 (22.18–38.63) | 49.53 (42.29–56.64) | 2.27 (1.68–3.22) | 37.51 (32.60–42.82) | 54.05 (50.33–57.63) | 1.96 (1.05–3.64) |
| Born in non-EU country | 48.17 (44.75–51.59) | 44.71 (41.65–47.78) | 0.87 (0.54–1.39) | 24.28 (19.92–29.30) | 50.44 (44.90–56.08) | 3.17 (2.54–4.07) | 41.44 (38.62–44.34) | 46.04 (43.33–48.71) | 1.20 (0.82–1.77) |
| Degree of urbanizationa,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Cities | 41.98 (40.32–43.65) | 46.19 (44.87–47.52) | 1.19 (0.97–1.44) | 36.68 (34.01–39.36) | 52.29 (50.09–54.47) | 1.89 (1.40–2.54) | 40.55 (39.13–41.97) | 47.83 (46.69–48.96) | 1.34 (1.14–1.58) |
| Towns and suburbs | 39.40 (37.54–41.34) | 44.09 (42.57–45.61) | 1.21 (0.96–1.53) | 30.84 (28.00–33.87) | 48.76 (46.28–51.33) | 2.13 (1.49–3.05) | 37.08 (35.47–38.68) | 45.35 (44.05–46.66) | 1.40 (1.15–1.71) |
| Rural areas | 38.46 (36.09–40.89) | 46.53 (44.65–48.40) | 1.39 (1.24–1.57) | 30.82 (27.68–34.09) | 47.33 (44.46–50.20) | 2.01 (1.55–2.62) | 35.90 (33.99–37.85) | 46.77 (45.21–48.35) | 1.57 (1.29–1.91) |
| Marital statusa,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Single | 43.23 (41.53–44.95) | 49.98 (48.13–51.80) | 1.31 (1.00–1.71) | 35.06 (32.04–38.23) | 57.07 (53.91–60.13) | 2.46 (1.58–3.83) | 41.43 (39.95–42.95) | 51.78 (50.20–53.37) | 1.52 (1.21–1.90) |
| Married or living with partner | 38.70 (37.00–40.44) | 46.04 (44.76–47.34) | 1.35 (1.15–1.59) | 35.76 (33.31–38.32) | 50.34 (48.06–52.58) | 1.82 (1.46–2.27) | 37.78 (36.36–39.20) | 47.10 (45.98–48.22) | 1.47 (1.28–1.67) |
| Divorced | 34.68 (30.19–39.18) | 38.30 (36.24–40.37) | 1.17 (0.60–2.04) | 27.24 (22.75–32.18) | 43.47 (40.86–46.16) | 2.05 (1.30–3.25) | 31.38 (28.10–34.64) | 40.30 (38.68–41.94) | 1.48 (1.01–2.16) |
| Widowed | 39.85 (36.66–42.97) | 46.56 (44.19–48.93) | 1.31 (0.90–1.91) | 24.56 (20.28–29.04) | 53.09 (48.79–57.40) | 3.47 (1.95–6.18) | 35.48 (32.90–38.12) | 48.08 (46.02–50.18) | 1.68 (1.22–2.32) |
| Education levela,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| No formal education | 25.44 (18.44–32.98) | 13.10 (10.33–16.36) | 0.44 (0.18–0.82) | 26.87 (16.95–38.25) | 24.29 (17.65–31.96) | 0.87 (0.51–1.49) | 25.90 (20.05–32.17) | 15.57 (12.88–18.61) | 0.53 (0.31–0.86) |
| Primary school | 32.50 (30.54–34.48) | 36.10 (34.69–37.53) | 1.17 (0.88–1.56) | 24.13 (21.54–26.85) | 41.33 (39.14–43.57) | 2.21 (1.57–3.12) | 29.87 (28.30–31.48) | 37.68 (36.49–38.89) | 1.42 (1.13–1.78) |
| Secondary school | 43.61 (42.04–45.16) | 51.65 (50.31–52.99) | 1.38 (1.13–1.68) | 35.20 (32.75–37.68) | 55.86 (53.59–58.11) | 2.32 (1.73–3.13) | 41.34 (40.03–42.68) | 52.74 (51.58–53.89) | 1.58 (1.34–1.87) |
| Higher education | 45.37 (42.75–48.03) | 58.00 (55.92–60.10) | 1.66 (1.37–2.01) | 46.48 (42.06–50.78) | 61.96 (58.55–65.36) | 1.87 (1.40–2.51) | 45.67 (43.40–47.92) | 59.06 (57.29–60.86) | 1.72 (1.46–2.01) |
| Employment statusa,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Employed | 38.96 (36.91–41.02) | 44.27 (42.67–45.91) | 1.48 (1.19–1.82) | 24.47 (21.70–27.43) | 48.76 (46.04–51.49) | 1.83 (1.29–2.59) | 34.82 (33.14–36.54) | 45.45 (44.07–46.86) | 1.56 (1.30–1.87) |
| Unemployed | 43.58 (41.19–45.96) | 41.88 (40.11–43.70) | 1.09 (0.67–1.78) | 29.95 (26.56–33.49) | 45.14 (42.25–48.13) | 4.80 (2.23–10.37) | 39.66 (37.67–41.65) | 42.78 (41.25–44.31) | 1.42 (0.92–2.20) |
| Inactive | 40.13 (37.62–42.70) | 44.84 (42.78–46.90) | 1.13 (095–1.35) | 36.49 (32.60–40.45) | 51.84 (48.47–55.23) | 2.11 (1.72–2.60) | 39.09 (36.96–41.23) | 46.74 (45.00–48.53) | 1.37 (1.19–1.57) |
| Income levela,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 38.17 (35.44–41.01) | 49.04 (46.76–51.33) | 1.24 (0.94–1.65) | 41.87 (37.50–46.65) | 52.61 (48.76–56.35) | 2.94 (1.95–4.42) | 39.19 (36.81–41.57) | 49.99 (48.04–51.96) | 1.56 (1.23–1.97) |
| 2nd quintile | 43.04 (39.93–46.32) | 49.63 (46.98–52.35) | 0.93 (0.69–1.26) | 42.52 (37.24–47.91) | 56.41 (52.28–60.46) | 1.92 (1.37–2.71) | 42.90 (40.22–45.71) | 51.65 (49.39–53.88) | 1.14 (0.89–1.45) |
| 3rd quintile | 43.23 (41.48–44.98) | 53.03 (51.51–54.51) | 1.21 (0.91–1.61) | 44.43 (41.43–47.42) | 59.37 (56.77–61.91) | 1.87 (1.51–3.04) | 43.54 (42.05–45.07) | 54.60 (53.30–55.89) | 1.37 (1.07–1.75) |
| 4th quintile | 35.81 (32.58–39.26) | 37.94 (35.06–40.88) | 1.56 (1.18–2.05) | 20.16 (15.43–25.85) | 54.83 (47.65–61.78) | 1.54 (1.06–2.24) | 32.32 (29.46–35.21) | 40.48 (37.77–43.20) | 1.55 (1.24–1.94) |
| 5th quintile | 39.23 (37.67–40.82) | 42.24 (41.08–43.39) | 1.30 (0.96–1.77) | 28.10 (26.03–30.28) | 45.29 (43.55–47.06) | 1.75 (1.12–2.72) | 35.70 (34.43–36.98) | 43.17 (42.21–44.14) | 1.42 (1.10–1.83) |
| Oslo Social Support Scalea,b,c,e | |||||||||
| Poor support | 38.44 (37.03–39.86) | 44.13 (43.06–45.20) | 1.26 (1.08–1.47) | 33.05 (31.00–35.20) | 49.46 (47.68–51.26) | 1.98 (1.58–2.49) | 36.83 (35.67–38.01) | 45.54 (44.63–46.46) | 1.43 (1.26–1.63) |
| Moderate support | 44.12 (42.22–46.02) | 49.78 (48.08–51.47) | 1.25 (0.97–1.62) | 32.33 (29.36–35.39) | 50.17 (47.59–52.84) | 2.10 (1.52–2.92) | 41.05 (39.44–42.67) | 49.89 (48.46–51.31) | 1.43 (1.16–1.76) |
| Strong support | 24.74 (18.47–32.52) | 46.93 (39.96–53.67) | 2.69 (0.73–9.90) | 48.58 (36.21–62.06) | 42.54 (33.25–52.31) | 0.78 (0.23–1.91) | 31.38 (25.50–38.35) | 45.46 (39.82–51.00) | 1.82 (0.68–4.87) |
| Smokinga,e | |||||||||
| Yes | 43.96 (42.24–45.69) | 46.07 (44.44–47.70) | 1.09 (0.84–1.40) | 33.36 (30.59–36.16) | 52.57 (49.46–55.66) | 2.21 (1.43–3.41) | 41.24 (39.76–42.71) | 47.48 (46.03–48.92) | 1.29 (1.04–1.60) |
| No | 38.18 (36.76–39.62) | 45.73 (44.69–46.78) | 1.36 (1.18–1.57) | 33.24 (31.16–35.39) | 49.44 (47.82–51.04) | 1.96 (1.63–2.35) | 36.69 (35.52–37.89) | 46.83 (45.95–47.71) | 1.52 (1.35–1.70) |
| Vapingb,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 44.15 (39.72–48.67) | 58.96 (54.66–63.14) | 1.82 (0.96–3.44) | 41.46 (35.07–48.11) | 59.54 (50.85–67.28) | 2.07 (1.36–3.43) | 43.30 (39.65–47.04) | 59.08 (55.20–62.75) | 1.89 (1.08–3.31) |
| No | 40.41 (39.28–41.56) | 45.28 (44.38–46.18) | 1.22 (1.07–1.39) | 32.77 (31.05–34.55) | 50.01 (48.54–51.46) | 2.05 (1.71–2.45) | 38.27 (37.31–39.23) | 46.60 (45.83–47.36) | 1.41 (1.26–1.57) |
| Alcohol consumptiona,b,c,e,f | |||||||||
| More than once a month | 46.88 (45.07–48.69) | 49.43 (47.46–51.40) | 1.11 (0.87–1.41) | 36.77 (33.95–39.70) | 53.74 (50.24–57.16) | 1.99 (1.39–2.87) | 44.15 (42.62–45.70) | 50.48 (48.78–52.20) | 1.29 (1.05–1.57) |
| Once a month or less | 36.75 (35.31–38.21) | 45.08 (44.05–46.10) | 1.41 (1.19–1.67) | 31.28 (29.12–33.53) | 50.91 (49.24–52.55) | 2.28 (1.80–2.88) | 35.19 (33.98–36.41) | 46.71 (45.84–47.58) | 1.61 (1.40–1.86) |
| Physical activitya,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Low physical activity | 36.51 (35.04–37.99) | 41.20 (40.08–42.33) | 1.22 (1.02–1.45) | 29.42 (27.38–31.56) | 46.64 (44.87–48.42) | 2.09 (1.72–2.55) | 34.32 (33.12–35.54) | 42.79 (41.84–43.75) | 1.43 (1.25–1.64) |
| Moderate physical activity | 43.09 (40.24–45.96) | 48.81 (46.62–50.97) | 1.26 (0.94–1.68) | 39.16 (34.64–43.57) | 49.79 (46.4–53.35) | 1.54 (0.91–2.62) | 41.98 (39.56–44.39) | 49.08 (47.25–50.94) | 1.33 (1.03–1.72) |
| High physical activity | 46.44 (44.43–48.43) | 54.87 (53.10–56.64) | 1.40 (1.06–1.84) | 38.83 (35.35–42.43) | 61.73 (58.5–64.88) | 2.54 (1.59–4.05) | 44.66 (42.91–46.41) | 56.43 (54.88–57.98) | 1.60 (1.27–2.03) |
Note: 1st quintile contains the lowest values and the 5th quintile the highest values. European Health Interview Survey Wave 3 (2018–2020). Inactive, retirees, students, and those performing domestic tasks, carrying out compulsory service, or unable to work for health reasons. ∗ = according to the PHQ-8; ∗∗ = does not include data from Malta.
Abbreviations: EU, European Union; OR, odds ratio.
aStatistically significant self-medication differences in men with recognized depression.
bStatistically significant self-medication differences in women with recognized depressed.
cStatistically significant self-medication differences in men with depression symptoms.
dStatistically significant self-medication differences in women with depression symptoms.
eStatistically significant self-medication differences in men for both groups.
fStatistically significant self-medication differences in women for both groups.