Table 3.
Self-medication prevalence by sex in depressed and noninstitutionalized residents aged 15 and over in the European Union according to health variables.
| Independent variables | Recognized depression | Depression symptoms∗ | Both groups | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | Female | OR female | Male | Female | OR female | Male | Female | OR female | |
| Medication availability clustera,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Pharmacy-only | 32.66 (30.09–35.27) | 37.45 (35.58–39.30) | 1.23 (1.04–1.46) | 47.41 (41.39–53.18) | 61.40 (56.73–65.91) | 1.76 (1.34–2.30) | 35.29 (32.91–37.70) | 40.85 (39.12–42.62) | 1.26 (1.09–1.47) |
| Nonpharmacy | 45.42 (43.42–47.43) | 52.28 (50.68–53.85) | 1.32 (1.16–1.49) | 37.30 (34.63–40.01) | 51.28 (49.19–53.38) | 1.77 (1.49–2.09) | 42.63 (41.02–44.24) | 51.91 (50.64–53.17) | 1.45 (1.31–1.61) |
| Limited nonpharmacy | 40.09 (38.58–41.61) | 45.06 (43.81–46.32) | 1.22 (0.96–1.55) | 27.39 (25.16–29.65) | 46.09 (43.98–48.22) | 2.26 (1.57–3.25) | 36.62 (35.37–37.91) | 45.33 (44.25–46.41) | 1.43 (1.18–1.74) |
| Long-standing health problema,b,e | |||||||||
| Yes | 38.78 (37.55–40.01) | 46.21 (45.26–47.16) | 1.36 (1.17–1.56) | 34.01 (32.06–35.98) | 49.51 (47.85–51.16) | 1.90 (1.53–2.35) | 37.49 (36.45–38.53) | 47.04 (46.21–47.86) | 1.48 (1.31–1.67) |
| No | 47.27 (44.81–49.78) | 43.23 (40.97–45.47) | 0.85 (0.61–1.18) | 30.99 (27.82–34.41) | 50.77 (47.96–53.63) | 2.29 (1.60–3.29) | 41.93 (39.91–43.94) | 46.18 (44.43–47.97) | 1.19 (0.92–1.53) |
| Self-perceived healtha,b,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Very good/good | 43.66 (41.70–45.63) | 48.25 (46.63–49.89) | 1.20 (0.94–1.53) | 34.18 (30.98–37.37) | 50.57 (47.79–53.32) | 1.97 (1.35–2.86) | 41.23 (39.54–42.9) | 48.85 (47.45–50.25) | 1.36 (1.11–1.66) |
| Fair | 37.64 (35.87–39.49) | 46.85 (45.51–48.20) | 1.46 (1.19–1.79) | 35.32 (32.35–38.44) | 51.63 (49.25–54.02) | 1.95 (1.38–2.76) | 37.05 (35.50–38.61) | 48.01 (46.84–49.18) | 1.57 (1.32–1.87) |
| Bad/very bad | 40.70 (38.78–42.67) | 41.45 (39.80–43.08) | 1.03 (0.81–1.31) | 30.84 (28.30–33.46) | 47.51 (45.23–49.86) | 2.03 (1.59–2.59) | 37.40 (35.85–38.98) | 43.51 (42.17–44.85) | 1.29 (1.07–1.55) |
| Use of prescribed medicinea,b,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 39.80 (38.61–41.00) | 45.46 (44.55–46.38) | 1.26 (1.10–1.45) | 33.64 (31.82–35.49) | 49.65 (48.15–51.16) | 1.94 (1.59–2.38) | 38.06 (37.06–39.07) | 46.60 (45.82–47.38) | 1.42 (1.27–1.59) |
| No | 45.41 (42.52–48.25) | 49.08 (46.07–52.18) | 1.16 (0.79–1.70) | 31.33 (27.23–35.57) | 52.53 (47.92–56.83) | 2.42 (1.61–3.65) | 41.32 (38.98–43.75) | 50.18 (47.64–52.69) | 1.40 (1.06–1.93) |
| Visit to a general practitioner or family doctor∗∗a,c,e | |||||||||
| Yes | 37.85 (36.58–39.12) | 45.58 (44.62–46.56) | 1.37 (1.19–1.59) | 34.86 (32.82–36.96) | 49.20 (47.55–50.83) | 1.81 (1.46–2.24) | 37.06 (35.97–38.14) | 46.52 (45.69–47.36) | 1.47 (1.31–1.66) |
| No | 48.23 (46.08–50.43) | 46.33 (44.27–48.39) | 0.93 (0.68–1.25) | 30.09 (27.29–33.03) | 52.16 (49.28–55.05) | 2.53 (1.80–3.57) | 42.32 (40.58–44.11) | 48.31 (46.63–49.99) | 1.27 (1.00–1.61) |
| Visit to a medical or surgical specialist∗∗b,d,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 40.73 (39.37–42.12) | 46.99 (45.97–48.01) | 1.29 (1.10–1.51) | 34.23 (32.14–36.42) | 54.79 (53.03–56.50) | 2.32 (1.85–2.92) | 38.92 (37.77–40.09) | 48.98 (48.09–49.85) | 1.51 (1.32–1.71) |
| No | 40.51 (38.65–42.36) | 41.98 (40.27–43.73) | 1.06 (0.84–1.35) | 31.73 (29.08–34.53) | 39.89 (37.43–42.35) | 1.43 (1.05–1.93) | 37.93 (36.39–39.47) | 41.30 (39.89–42.72) | 1.15 (0.95–1.39) |
| Visit to a psychologist, psychotherapist, or psychiatrist∗∗b,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 40.37 (38.68–42.06) | 50.20 (48.89–51.50) | 1.49 (1.22–1.82) | 35.86 (31.09–40.82) | 57.64 (54.11–61.13) | 2.43 (2.01–2.99) | 39.90 (38.32–41.52) | 51.08 (49.86–52.31) | 1.57 (1.30–1.89) |
| No | 40.65 (39.20–42.11) | 42.00 (40.82–43.17) | 1.06 (0.88–1.26) | 32.95 (31.16–34.75) | 48.37 (46.82–49.94) | 1.91 (1.57–2.32) | 37.76 (36.62–38.89) | 44.34 (43.40–45.29) | 1.31 (1.15–1.50) |
| Unmet need for health care due to waiting lists∗∗a,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 44.75 (42.64–46.86) | 51.60 (50.01–53.16) | 1.31 (1.02−1.69) | 39.64 (36.07–43.37) | 56.13 (53.49–58.68) | 1.95 (1.31–2.88) | 43.51 (41.68–45.34) | 52.80 (51.47–54.16) | 1.45 (1.17–1.79) |
| No | 37.33 (35.93–38.77) | 42.52 (41.40–43.66) | 1.24 (1.05–1.47) | 31.63 (29.53–33.75) | 47.85 (46.00–49.74) | 1.98 (1.60–2.46) | 35.66 (34.48–36.85) | 43.97 (43.01–44.95) | 1.41 (1.23 (1.62) |
| No need for health care | 46.23 (43.16–49.29) | 47.14 (44.33–50.04) | 1.03 (0.82–1.25) | 30.72 (26.63–35.05) | 44.99 (40.96–49.16) | 1.84 (1.06–3.21) | 41.41 (38.93–43.95) | 46.44 (44.14–48.83) | 1.23 (0.90–1.67) |
| Unmet need for health care due to distance or transportation problems∗∗a,b,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 55.50 (51.74–59.10) | 52.71 (49.59–55.75) | 0.89 (0.53–1.50) | 37.88 (33.13–43.09) | 53.31 (48.85–57.70) | 1.87 (1.23–2.21) | 49.47 (46.48–52.49) | 52.90 (50.34–55.40) | 1.15 (0.75–1.74) |
| No | 38.44 (37.21–39.68) | 44.70 (43.74–45.67) | 1.29 (1.12–1.49) | 33.32 (31.39–35.29) | 49.73 (48.11–51.37) | 1.98 (1.62–2.41) | 37.05 (36.01–38.09) | 46.02 (45.19–46.86) | 1.45 (1.28–1.63) |
| No need for health care | 43.22 (40.08–46.45) | 48.93 (46.11–51.74) | 1.25 (1.02–1.59) | 29.99 (25.64–34.55) | 48.28 (44.37–52.33) | 2.18 (1.36–3.48) | 39.20 (36.60–41.85) | 48.71 (46.44–51.03) | 1.47 (1.11–1.96) |
| Unmet need for health care due to inability to afford medical examination or treatment∗∗a,b,c,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 50.41 (46.69–54.01) | 52.14 (49.57–54.64) | 1.07 (0.71–1.61) | 37.38 (32.40–42.89) | 58.05 (54.26–61.78) | 2.32 (1.50–3.58) | 46.32 (43.32–49.38) | 53.95 (51.82–56.03) | 1.36 (0.98–1.87) |
| No | 37.99 (36.70–39.29) | 44.68 (43.65–45.72) | 1.32 (1.13–1.54) | 33.95 (31.87–36.08) | 51.04 (49.26–52.84) | 2.02 (1.61–2.55) | 36.92 (35.82–38.03) | 46.29 (45.40–47.19) | 1.47 (1.29–1.67) |
| No need for health care | 47.46 (44.66–50.23) | 47.02 (44.59–49.48) | 0.98 (0.69–1.40) | 29.25 (25.73–33.08) | 42.69 (39.29–46.16) | 1.80 (1.10–2.95) | 41.58 (39.33–43.86) | 45.58 (43.60–47.59) | 1.18 (0.88–1.58) |
| Unmet need for health care due to inability to afford prescribed medicines∗∗a,c,d,e | |||||||||
| Yes | 49.05 (45.23–52.82) | 48.66 (46.01–51.33) | 0.98 (0.62–1.55) | 47.16 (41.73–52.66) | 50.60 (46.38–54.69) | 1.15 (0.69–1.90) | 48.44 (45.36–51.60) | 49.22 (46.97–51.46) | 1.03 (0.73–1.46) |
| No | 38.74 (37.48–39.99) | 45.53 (44.53–46.53) | 1.32 (1.14–1.53) | 31.44 (29.45–33.47) | 51.93 (50.24–53.64) | 2.35 (1.89–2.93) | 36.82 (35.76–37.90) | 47.18 (46.32–48.04) | 1.53 (1.35–1.73) |
| No need for health care | 47.92 (44.71–51.07) | 47.64 (44.74–50.67) | 0.99 (0.65–1.52) | 32.70 (28.7–37.06) | 43.58 (39.58–47.62) | 1.59 (0.93–2.71) | 42.78 (40.24–45.37) | 46.22 (43.84–48.62) | 1.15 (0.82–1.61) |
| Unmet need for health care due to inability to afford mental health care∗∗a,b,d,e,f | |||||||||
| Yes | 45.46 (42.05–48.85) | 54.55 (51.83–57.18) | 1.44 (0.95–2.18) | 41.24 (33.68–49.32) | 60.49 (54.81–66.27) | 2.18 (1.09–4.34) | 44.81 (41.69–47.94) | 55.58 (53.13–57.99) | 1.54 (1.06–2.22) |
| No | 39.90 (38.52–41.27) | 45.14 (44.05–46.24) | 1.24 (1.05–1.46) | 32.92 (30.48–35.36) | 51.92 (49.82–54.05) | 2.20 (1.65–2.94) | 38.32 (37.13–39.53) | 46.58 (45.61–47.56) | 1.40 (1.21–1.62) |
| No need for health care | 39.98 (37.65–42.34) | 44.88 (43.00–46.75) | 1.22 (0.94–1.59) | 32.94 (30.35–35.50) | 48.31 (46.16–50.52) | 1.90 (1.45–2.49) | 36.93 (35.19–38.67) | 46.34 (44.92–47.76) | 1.47 (1.22–1.78) |
Note: European Health Interview Survey Wave 3 (2018–2020). ∗ = according to the PHQ-8; ∗∗ = in the past 12 months.
Abbreviation: OR, odds ratio.
aStatistically significant self-medication differences in men with recognized depression.
bStatistically significant self-medication differences in women with recognized depressed.
cStatistically significant self-medication differences in men with depression symptoms.
dStatistically significant self-medication differences in women with depression symptoms.
eStatistically significant self-medication differences in men for both groups.
fStatistically significant self-medication differences in women for both groups.