Table 4.
Multivariable analysis of self-medication in depressed and noninstitutionalized residents aged 15 and over in the European Union according to demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, and health variables.
| Independent variables | Recognized depression | Depression symptoms∗ | Both groups | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | Female | Both sexes | Male | Female | Both sexes | Male | Female | Both sexes | |
| Sex (ref. male) | |||||||||
| Female | — | — | 1.41 (1.22–1.64) | — | — | 2.25 (1.86–2.71) | — | — | 1.37 (1.18–1.60) |
| Depression diagnosis tool (ref. recognized depression) | |||||||||
| Depression symptoms | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.69 (0.56–0.84) | 1.28 (1.11–1.48) | 0.70 (0.57–0.86) |
| Women with depression symptoms (ref. men with recognized depression) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 1.75 (1.36–2.26) |
| Age (ref. 75+ years) | |||||||||
| 15–24 years | 1.16 (0.67–2.02) | 1.47 (0.98–2.18) | 1.15 (0.82–1.60) | 0.77 (0.43–1.37) | 1.60 (1.02–2.51) | 1.15 (0.80–1.64) | 1.01 (0.67–1.53) | 1.50 (1.09–2.07) | 1.06 (0.81–1.39) |
| 25–44 years | 1.00 (0.65–1.54) | 1.35 (1.01–1.81) | 1.12 (0.86–1.46) | 1.17 (0.72–1.92) | 1.93 (1.33–2.78) | 1.38 (0.98–1.95) | 1.07 (0.78–1.46) | 1.47 (1.15–1.89) | 1.15 (0.93–1.43) |
| 45–64 years | 0.89 (0.59–1.35) | 1.02 (0.81–1.27) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) | 0.72 (0.48–1.10) | 1.45 (1.08–1.95) | 0.99 (0.77–1.29) | 0.86 (0.64–1.16) | 1.07 (0.89–1.29) | 0.94 (0.79–1.12) |
| 65–74 years | 0.80 (0.50–1.28) | 1.04 (0.83–1.31) | 0.95 (0.76–1.20) | 1.34 (0.89–2.03) | 1.08 (0.79–1.47) | 1.20 (0.93–1.54) | 0.98 (0.70–1.36) | 1.06 (0.88–1.28) | 1.00 (0.84–1.20) |
| Degree of urbanization (ref. rural areas) | |||||||||
| Cities | — | — | — | 1.37 (1.00–1.88) | — | — | — | — | — |
| Towns and suburbs | — | — | — | 1.00 (0.70–1.45) | — | — | — | — | — |
| Education level (ref. no formal education) | |||||||||
| Primary school | — | — | — | — | 1.92 (1.21–3.05) | 1.51 (1.00–2.29) | 0.93 (0.56–1.53) | 2.75 (2.10–3.61) | 2.06 (1.57–2.70) |
| Secondary school | — | — | — | — | 2.84 (1.78–4.55) | 2.32 (1.52–3.54) | 1.50 (0.93–2.42) | 4.66 (3.53–6.14) | 3.25 (2.48–4.25) |
| Higher education | — | — | — | — | 3.37 (2.04–5.57) | 2.79 (1.78–4.37) | 1.67 (1.02–2.71) | 5.63 (4.20–7.54) | 3.74 (2.83–4.93) |
| Employment status (ref. unemployed) | |||||||||
| Employed | — | 1.52 (1.06–2.18) | 1.33 (1.00–1.77) | 2.86 (1.57–5.22) | — | 1.65 (0.98–2.76) | — | 1.52 (1.09–2.11) | 1.45 (1.12–1.88) |
| Inactive | — | 1.28 (0.90–1.83) | 1.20 (0.89–1.61) | 1.26 (0.69–2.29) | — | 1.05 (0.62–1.76) | — | 1.23 (0.89–1.72) | 1.18 (0.90–1.54) |
| Income level (ref. 1st quintile) | |||||||||
| 2nd quintile | — | — | — | 1.09 (0.71–1.65) | — | — | — | — | — |
| 3rd quintile | — | — | — | 1.30 (0.79–2.14) | — | — | — | — | — |
| 4th quintile | — | — | — | 1.70 (1.10–2.62) | — | — | — | — | — |
| 5th quintile | — | — | — | 1.59 (0.99–2.57) | — | — | — | — | — |
| Alcohol consumption (ref. once a month or less) | |||||||||
| More than once a month | 1.42 (1.12–1.81) | — | 1.20 (1.03–1.40) | — | — | — | 1.36 (1.11–1.66) | — | 1.16 (1.02–1.33) |
| Physical activity (ref. low physical activity) | |||||||||
| Moderate physical activity | 1.27 (0.94–1.72) | 1.22 (1.00–1.48) | 1.22 (1.02–1.46) | 1.59 (1.05–2.41) | 1.01 (0.72–1.4) | 1.09 (0.83–1.44) | 1.26 (0.98–1.63) | 1.15 (0.97–1.37) | 1.14 (0.98–1.34) |
| High physical activity | 1.30 (0.99–1.71) | 1.50 (1.21–1.87) | 1.39 (1.17–1.66) | 1.53 (1.05–2.22) | 1.43 (1.02–2.00) | 1.37 (1.05–1.78) | 1.32 (1.05–1.66) | 1.50 (1.25–1.81) | 1.38 (1.18–1.60) |
| Medication availability cluster (ref. pharmacy-only) | |||||||||
| Nonpharmacy | 2.23 (1.82–2.72) | 1.55 (1.37–1.76) | 2.10 (1.86–2.36) | 0.64 (0.48–0.86) | 0.71 (0.59–0.87) | 0.69 (0.59–0.82) | 1.89 (1.59–2.25) | 1.42 (1.27–1.59) | 1.98 (1.78–2.21) |
| Limited pharmacy | 1.43 (1.12–1.84) | 1.09 (0.92–1.28) | 1.32 (1.15–1.53) | 0.38 (0.27–0.54) | 0.52 (0.40–0.66) | 0.46 (0.38–0.57) | 1.17 (0.95–1.44) | 0.95 (0.82–1.10) | 1.15 (1.02–1.31) |
| Long-standing health problem (ref. no) | |||||||||
| Yes | — | 1.35 (1.07–1.70) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Use of prescribed medicine in the past 2 weeks (ref. no) | |||||||||
| Yes | — | — | — | 1.68 (1.12–2.52) | — | — | — | 1.27 (1.04–1.55) | 1.02 (0.85–1.21) |
| Visit to a medical or surgical specialist∗∗ (ref. no) | |||||||||
| Yes | — | 1.21 (1.01–1.45) | 1.24 (1.05–1.46) | — | 1.65 (1.30–2.08) | 1.49 (1.23–1.81) | — | 1.32 (1.13–1.53) | 1.34 (1.17–1.54) |
| Unmet need for health care due to distance or transportation problems∗∗ (ref. no need for health care) | |||||||||
| Yes | 1.91 (1.06–3.46) | — | 1.50 (1.05–2.15) | — | — | — | 1.89 (1.18–3.04) | 1.55 (1.20–1.99) | 1.35 (0.99–1.85) |
| No | 0.88 (0.63–1.25) | — | 0.84 (0.67–1.06) | — | — | — | 0.97 (0.73–1.28) | 1.06 (0.87–1.29) | 0.88 (0.72–1.09) |
| Unmet need for health due to inability to afford medical examination or treatment∗∗ (ref. no need for health care) | |||||||||
| Yes | — | — | — | — | 2.02 (1.32–3.08) | 1.97 (1.40–2.77) | — | — | 1.38 (1.07–1.79) |
| No | — | — | — | — | 1.47 (1.06–2.03) | 1.42 (1.09–1.86) | — | — | 1.00 (0.82–1.22) |
Note: Inactive, retirees, students, and those performing domestic tasks, carrying out compulsory service, or unable to work for health reasons. 1st quintile contains the lowest values and the 5th quintile the highest values. European Health Interview Survey Wave 3 (2018–2020). ∗ = according to the PHQ-8; ∗∗ = in the past 12 months;