Table 3.

Global Climate Models selected for modeling.

Global Climate Models	Description
ACCESS-CM2	Developed by Australian climate scientists, ACCESS-CM2 is a high-resolution climate model designed to simulate the interactions between the atmosphere and oceans. It focuses on the impact of greenhouse gases on global warming and is used for global climate change research.
CMCC-ESM2	Developed by the Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change (CMCC), CMCC-ESM2 is an Earth system model that integrates modules for the atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice sheet processes. It focuses on climate change prediction and assesses the potential environmental and societal impacts of climate change.
EC-Earth3-Veg	Developed as part of the EC-Earth project, EC-Earth3-Veg incorporates a plant dynamics module to simulate the feedback effects of vegetation changes on climate. It focuses on the interactions between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere, with an emphasis on land-based ecological feedbacks to climate change.
GISS-E2-1-G	Developed by NASA’ s Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), GISS-E2-1-G is a comprehensive climate model designed for long-term climate simulations. It emphasizes the coupling of multiple physical processes within the global climate system and focuses on temperature changes, sea-level rise, and other global climate phenomena.
INM-CM5-0	Developed by the Russian Institute for Numerical Mathematics (INM), INM-CM5-0 is an Earth system model that simulates atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. It is primarily used for global climate predictions and focuses on simulating extreme weather events and climate change in polar regions.
IPSL-CM6A-LR	Developed by the Pierre-Simon Laplace Institute (IPSL) in France, IPSL-CM6A-LR is a low-resolution Earth system model that couples the atmosphere, oceans, land, and ice sheets. It focuses on long-term climate change simulations, extreme weather events, and the impact of climate change on global energy balance.
MIROC6	Developed by several Japanese research institutions, MIROC6 is a high-resolution climate model designed for global climate simulations. It focuses on long-term climate predictions and the regional impacts of climate change, with particular strength in simulating temperature, precipitation, and sea-level changes.
MPI-ESM1-2-HR	Developed by the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, MPI-ESM1-2-HR is a high-resolution Earth system model that emphasizes high-precision simulations of climate change. It focuses on the response of climate systems to extreme weather events and is particularly suited for studying the impacts of climate change on ecosystems, ice sheets, and the global hydrological cycle.
MRI-ESM2-0	Developed by the Meteorological Research Institute (MRI) of Japan, MRI-ESM2-0 is an Earth system model that simulates atmospheric, oceanic, and ice sheet processes. It focuses on multiple feedback mechanisms within the Earth system and is used for climate change predictions and regional climate studies.
UKESM1-0-LL	Developed by the UK Met Office and partner institutions, UKESM1-0-LL is a low-resolution Earth system model that couples physical climate processes with biogeochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, and aerosols. It focuses on climate–carbon cycle feedbacks and is used for long-term climate projections and mitigation assessments.