Table 2.

The expression and roles of β-arrestin2 in inflammatory immune diseases.

Disease	Model	β-arrestin2 expression	Mechanism/effect	Ref.
IBD	Piroxicam-induced colitis mice; TNBS-induced colitis mice	↑	Impeding NK1R recycling and causing retention of the NK1R in endosomes	[101]
	DSS-induced UC mice; TNBS-induced CD mice	↑	Encouraging epithelial apoptosis through ER stress/PUMA pathway	[102]
	NEC in humans and mice	↑	Facilitating the release of the pro-apoptotic molecule BIK from BiP	[74]
RA	CIA mice	↓	Promoting NLRP3 inflammasome and NF-κB activation	[38]
	CAIA mice	↓	Promoting B lymphocyte differentiation by TLR4-NF-κB pathway	[3]
Sepsis	CLP-induced sepsis mice	↓	Elevating pulmonary microvascular permeability	[108]
	CLP-induced late sepsis mice	↑	Exacerbating the mice mortality and immunosuppression	[111]
Asthma	AASP-induced airway inflammation mice	↑	Increasing airway inflammation and mucus hyperplasia by PAR2/β-arrestin2 signaling axis	[115]
	IL-13-induced asthma mice	↑	Increasing mucous metaplasia and lung eosinophilia	[119]
Organ fibrosis	CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mice	↑	Regulating collagen deposition, ROS and NOX4 expression; activating ERK and JNK pathways	[61, 122]
	Bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis mice	↑	Increasing the expression of genes involved in matrix production, basement membrane degradation, and cell adhesion	[89]
Tumor	DEN-induced liver tumor mice; HCC sample of patient	↓	Increasing HCC cell migration and invasion ability	[129]
	Lewis lung cancer mice	↑	Modulating tumor growth and metastasis through the activation of CXCR2 and NF-κB	[132]
	Breast cancer sample of patient	↑	Promoting breast cancer cell migration and invasion	[136]
	Ovarian cancer sample of patient	↑	Impairing the overall survival of ovarian cancer patients	[137]
	CRC sample of patient	↑	Promoting CRC cell apoptosis via the NF‑κB pathway	[138]
	RCC sample of patient	↑	Promoting RCC cell proliferation and migration	[139]
HSE	HSV-1-induced HSE mice	↓	Decreasing HSE mice survival and promoting brain pro-inflammatory responses	[142]
PD	MPTP-induced PD mice; LPS-induced PD mice	↓	Promoting the activation of microglia and the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors	[143]

IBD inflammatory bowel disease, TNBS trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid, NEC necrotizing enterocolitis, AASP Alternaria alkaline serine protease, CLP cecal ligation and puncture, DEN diethylnitrosamine, HCC hepatocellular carcinoma, CRC colorectal cancer, RCC renal cell carcinoma, HSE herpes simplex encephalitis, HSV-1 herpes simplex virus type-1, PD Parkinson’s disease, MPTP 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine.