Table 3. Summary of treatment options for trigeminal nerve injuries and their clinical application status.

MSCs: Mesenchymal stem cells; iPSCs: Induced pluripotent stem cells; NGF: Nerve growth factor; BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; PGA: Polyglycolic acid; LLLT: Low-level laser therapy.

Treatment Modality	Description	Current Clinical Application Status
Microsurgical repair (neurorrhaphy, neurolysis, and neuroma excision)	Includes external/internal neurolysis, coaptation of severed nerve ends, and neuroma resection	Established clinical practice
Autologous nerve grafting	Donor nerve (e.g., sural or auricular) used to bridge nerve gaps greater than 5 mm	Gold standard in clinical use
Nerve transfers	Functional donor nerve redirected to reinnervate the affected region	Used clinically in selected severe cases
Free vascularized nerve grafts	Graft with vascular pedicle to maintain blood supply and reduce fibrosis	Used clinically with limited availability
Synthetic/biological nerve conduits (e.g., silicone, collagen, and PGA)	Tubular scaffolds used to bridge short nerve gaps (≤10 mm)	Approved for clinical use in short-gap repair
Vein-muscle conduits	Autogenous vein filled with skeletal muscle to support regeneration	Preclinical and limited human trials
Biodegradable polymer tubes	Scaffolds with embedded filaments for guided nerve growth over longer gaps	Experimental (in vivo animal studies)
Collagen-based tubes	Collagen conduits supporting regeneration of short nerve defects	Approved and in clinical use
Schwann cell-based conduit fillers	Schwann cells embedded in hydrogels (e.g., alginate-fibronectin) to enhance axonal growth	Translational stage (preclinical)
Growth factor delivery systems	Use of neurotrophic factors (e.g., NGF, BDNF, and VEGF) to stimulate regeneration	Preclinical (in vivo animal studies)
Stem cell therapies	MSCs, iPSCs, or neural stem cells applied to enhance nerve regeneration	Investigational (translational/preclinical stage)
Electrical stimulation	Application of localized electrical pulses post-repair to accelerate regeneration	Investigational (animal studies)
Nanoparticle-enhanced scaffolds	Incorporation of nanosilver and laminin to promote myelination and conduction	Preclinical (experimental in vivo studies)
Bipolar radiofrequency therapy	Minimally invasive technique for modulating nerve repair	Early-stage investigation
LLLT	Adjunctive therapy used with grafts to improve fiber maturation and healing	Limited clinical studies; further validation needed