Table 2.

Main mechanisms of wound healing and therapeutic applications of natural mucus from diverse sources: A comprehensive overview

Type	Extraction method	Therapeutic mechanism	Representative composition	Full-thickness skin defects	Skin incision	Diabetic wound	Mucosal injury	Burn wound	Infected wound	Current progress	Ref.
Andrias davidianus	Non-invasive abrade skin, lyophilize, grind	Hemostasis, moisturization, barrier function, epithelialization, neovascularization, stem cell recruitment	Mucins, polysaccharides, growth factors, antimicrobial peptides, phenolic compounds, electrolytes	+	+	+	+			Laboratory research phase	37-40
Snail	Harvest mucus, lyophilize	Hydrophilic adhesion, M2 macrophage polarization, anti-inflammation, antioxidant, antibacterial, EGF promotion	Glycosaminoglycans, mucins, allantoin, ethanolamine, EGF-like peptides,	+	+	+		+		Laboratory research phase	12, 41-44
Mussel	Chemical/enzymatic extraction	Stable adhesive, cell adhesion/proliferation, coagulation, antioxidant, ECM synthesis	Mussel foot proteins, dopamine, polysaccharides, polyunsaturated fatty acids	+	+			+	+	Laboratory research phase	45-50
Okra	Soak seeds, filter, lyophilize	Hemostasis, antioxidant, M2 macrophage promotion, epithelial regeneration, collagen deposition	Pectin, acidic polysaccharides (galacturonic acid), flavonoids, phenolic acids	+		+				Laboratory research phase	51-55
Aloe vera	Separate inner gel, filter, concentrate	Fibroblast proliferation, epidermal/vascular regeneration, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antibacterial	Acetylated mannans, polysaccharides, aloin, lupeol, salicylic acid, gibberellins, vitamins E/C, amino acids	+		+		+	+	Partial clinical application	56-61
Propolis	Solvent extraction	Collagen expression, ECM remodeling, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial	Resin acids, flavonoids, terpenes, enzymes, Caffeic acid derivatives, minerals	+		+	+	+	+	Partial clinical application	62-73
Bacterial cellulose (BC)	Bacterial fermentation, collect, purify	Moisture retention, exudate absorption, physical barrier, nano-porous structure	β-1,4-glucan, trace proteins, organic acids, Exopolysaccharide matrix	+		+		+	+	Routine clinical use	74-82