Table 2.

Summary of methods for combining EVs with MOFs or composite MOFs.

Convergence technology	Technical principle	Advantages	Disadvantages	References
Co-incubation	MOFs and EVs are incubated together at a specific temperature.	Simple operation; less structure and integrity damage to EVs.	Low loading efficiency; limited mass production.	101
In situ encapsulation	Through mixing EVs with MOF precursors, MOFs are formed in situ on the EV surface, resulting in the encapsulation of EVs.	High preparation efficiency; one-step sequential coating.	Possible EV bioactivity impairment.	39
Ultrasound	Ultrasonic energy acts on EVs to form transient channels, allowing MOFs to enter and form core-shell nanostructures.	High loading efficiency; less material loss.	More structure and integrity damage to EVs; limited mass production.	102
Extrusion	EVs and MOFs are extruded by porous membranes, and EVs are cracked and reassembled around the surface of MOFs to form core-shell nanostructures.	High loading efficiency.	More structure and integrity damage to EVs; limited mass production.	103
Microfluidic ultrasound	Microfluidics combined with ultrasound to cause batch EVs to rupture and recombine around MOFs to form core-shell nanostructures.	Streamlined operation; mass-production capability.	Specialized equipment requirement; elevated cost.	104
Extrusion after ultrasound	Ultrasonic energy and the mechanical force of extrusion cause the EVs to wrap on the surface of the MOFs.	Enhanced loading efficiency.	More structure and integrity damage to EVs; limited mass production.	105
Co-incubation after ultrasound	After ultrasonic treatment, when MOFs enter EVs, incubation at 37°C can restore the integrity of the EM.	Enhanced loading efficiency; increased restoration of EV structure and membrane integrity.	Limited mass production.	106