Table 1.

Summary of the quantitative studies investigating psychosocial support programmes

Author (year) Study Design Location	Study aims	Intervention Who delivers the intervention (n) Intervention duration	Setting (n) Population (n)	Language Culture Migration status	Outcomes considered	Resultsa	Comments
Badger et al. (2020) Randomised controlled trial (comparator: telephone interpersonal counselling (TIPC) delivered by a social worker United States	To test two 2-month psychosocial interventions ([TIPC] and Supportive Health Education [SHE]) to improve QoL outcomes for Latinas with breast cancer and their informal caregivers	SHE: normal breast health and breast cancer, routine tests, treatments, side effects, lifestyle interventions, resources and referrals Bilingual bicultural paraprofessional (NR) 8 weeks	Telephone 230 dyads	English or Spanish Latinx NR	Depression: 8-item short form from the PROMIS Stress: 10-item perceived stress scale Symptom distress: General Symptom Distress Scale Social support: 8-item PROMIS short forms for informational support, emotional support and social isolation	Latinx cancer survivors: At 2 months, TIPC produced lower depression scores compared to SHE (p = 0.04, 95% CI (0.01, 3.82)). At 4 months, SHE reduced symptom distress (p = 0.04, 95% CI (− 1.45, − 0.03)) and social isolation compared to TIPC (p = 0.03, 95% CI (− 4.27, − 0.24)). At 6 months, total number of symptoms was lower in SHE than in TIPC (p = < 0.01, 95% CI (− 1.97, − 00.58)). Caregivers: At 2 months, total number of symptoms (p = 0.04, 95% CI (− 1.29, − 0.04)), symptom distress (p = 0.05, 95% CI (− 1.52, − 0.01)) and anxiety (p = 0.01, 95% CI (− 5.38, − 0.66)) were lower, and self-efficacy for symptom management was higher in SHE compared to TIPC. Caregiver depression was lower in TIPC compared to SHE at 4 months (p = 0.04, 95% CI (0.11, 4.30)).	All materials for the study were translated in Spanish using the translation-back-translation method. After translation, a bilingual bicultural research staff member audited the translation with suggestions for revisions. Five Latinx cancer survivors provided feedback and changes were made based on the comments provided. The interventions were tailored to cultural values and beliefs of the participants (e.g. importance of family and close friends, displaying mutual respect, valuing personal relationships, being polite on the telephone and in all interactions, a relationship of trust). Most survivors were living in poverty (73% had a household income below $30,000 a year)
Cardeli et al. (2020) Pre-post study United States	(1) to describe the psychosocial needs of resettled Bhutanese refugee students; (2) to evaluate the impact of skill-based groups on these students’ sense of school belonging and mental health	Trauma Systems Therapy Skill-based group A Bhutanese cultural broker and a mental health clinician (one each [implied]) 12 weeks (1 h in length)	School (1) Bhutanese Refugee Youth (34)	Bhutanese Bhutanese Refugees	Aim 1 Traumatic exposure: War Trauma Screening Scale (WTSS); Child Version of the UCLA PTSD Reaction Index (UCLA PTSD-RI) for DSM-IV Acculturation: Language, Identity, and Behaviour scale (LIB) Aim 2 PTSD: UCLA PTSD-RI DSM-IV Depression: Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children (DSRS-C) School belonging: The Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) Scale	No significant difference between PTSD symptom scores from baseline (mean = 21.48, SD = 15.20) to follow-up (mean = 20.00, SD = 11.44), t(26) = 0.60, p = 0.55. No significant difference between depressive symptoms from baseline (mean = 10.26, SD = 3.19) to follow-up (mean = 10.19, SD = 2.93), t(30) = 0.108, p = 0.92. No significant difference between psychological sense of school belonging from baseline (mean = 65.29, SD = 9.41) to follow-up (mean = 67.16, SD = 11.01, t(30) = − 1.01, p = 0.32)	Group sessions included games, role-plays, experimental exercises and cross-cultural discussions about similarities and differences between American and Bhutanese culture. Major themes of group sessions were teamwork, respect, communication, diversity, self-regulation and self-esteem
Greene et al. (2021) Feasibility trial (comparator: usual care [e.g. information about existing services]) Tanzania	To examine the relevance, acceptability and feasibility of evaluating a multi-sectoral integrated violence and mental health-focussed intervention (Nguvu)	A multi-sectorial integrated violence- and mental health-focussed group intervention A lay refugee incentive worker and a humanitarian partner (5 pairs) 8 weeks	Local women’s groups in a refugee camp (43) Congolese refugee women from Nyarugusu refugee camp in Tanzania (311)	Kiswahili Congolese Refugees	Depression: Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25) Anxiety: Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25) Post-traumatic distress: Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ) Physical and sexual violence: Abuse Assessment Screen Intimate partner violence: Conflict Tactics Scales, demographic health surveys	Small and non- significant between-group differences for all outcomes considered, except for post-traumatic stress symptoms, which was lower in the intervention group relative to the control group (Mean Diff = − 0.22; 95% CI: − 0.43, − 0.01)	The intervention was developed amongst female refugees from the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo to reduce intimate partner violence and distress, drawing from Cognitive Processing Therapy. The gender-based violence response programme that existed at the time of the study consisted of case management and referrals to protection, medical or legal services (aid services, education about women’s rights, arranging safe shelter)—women from both intervention and control groups were able to access these services. There were differences in the likelihood of participant intervention completion by facilitator pair suggesting possible heterogeneity in the quality of implementation across facilitators. Analyses were not powered to detect significant between-group differences in outcomes.
Im et al. (2018) Pre-post study Kenya	To explore the effect of a trauma-informed psychoeducation (TIPE) on both the mental health and psychosocial domains amongst Somali refugee youth	TIPE modules which promoted refugee resilience, alongside components of peace education, conflict resolution, management skills and problem-solving methods Youth Somali leaders (10) and community health counsellors (5) 12 sessions	Community-based organisation (1) Somali youth (145)	Somali Somali Refugees	Trauma exposure: A 10-item list of refugee youth trauma developed based on a community needs assessment (war-related trauma and community violence trauma) PTSD: PTSD Check List-Civilian Version (PCL-C) Psychosocial factors: a 5-point Likert scale developed by community leaders, psychiatrists and counsellors, which assessed (1) attitudes towards violence, (2) sense of community, (3) social support, (4) emotional coping, (5) problem-solving and (6) awareness around mental health and psychosocial needs	No changes in PTSD symptoms when considering the total sample. For youth with no/low PTSD, there was a significant increase in score (27.42 [SD = 6.67] to 34.48 [SD = 12.83], p < 0.001), indicating a possible increase in self-awareness of symptoms, whereas those with high PTSD reported lower scores (50.09 [SD = 7.52] to 31.93 [SD = 13.86], p < 0.001). There were significant improvements in sense of community (6.83 [SD = 3.69] to 8.19 [SD = 2.71], p < 0.001), social support (4.29 [SD = 2.56] to 5.04 [SD = 2.10], p < 0.05) and awareness (6.87 [SD = 3.79] to 7.76 [SD = 3.75], p < 0.05).	TIPE sessions included education on multifaceted impacts of trauma on the body, mind, social relationships and spirituality, followed by psychosocial competencies, such as emotional coping and problem-solving, community and support systems, and conflict management skills Taken together, the results on PTSD symptoms might indicate that PTSD symptoms are already present in the majority of refugee youth, whether minor or severe, but low awareness in trauma responses likely hinders recognition and acceptance of trauma responses until exposure to psychoeducation. The authors acknowledge that adopting a PTSD score as a measure of outcome is a limitation of the study, as it is underpinned by a Western concept. The authors acknowledge the need to consider other factors that tend to impact on the mental health of refugees (e.g. poverty, poor livelihood, discrimination, family violence)
Lai et al. (2020) Randomised controlled trial (comparator: brief telephone calls) Canada	To examine the effectiveness of the peer-based intervention on older Chinese immigrants’ psychosocial wellbeing.	A two-on-one peer-based intervention which included home visits, telephone calls, problem-solving support and community resource sharing. Volunteers (24) 8 weeks	Community (home visits, phone calls) Community-dwelling older Chinese (60)	Chinese, including Mandarin, Cantonese and other dialects Nearly all Chinese, with only one from a Southeast Asian country NR	Primary outcomes Loneliness: De Jong Loneliness Scale-6 Social support: Lubben Social Network scale (LSNS) Barriers to social participation: Keele Assessment of Participation Secondary outcomes Depressive symptoms: General Depression Scale (GDS-4) Anxiety: Chinese version of the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory-Short Form (GAI-SF) Life satisfaction: Single question—‘In general, how satisfied are you with your life?’ Happiness: Single question—‘In general, how happy do you feel?’ Resilience: Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 2) Purpose in life: Ryff’s Psychological Wellbeing Scale	When compared to the control group, the intervention group reported decrease in loneliness (1.17 [95% CI, 0.45 to 1.89], p = 0.018), along with an increase in resilience (1.37 [95% CI, 0.7–2.03], p = 0.004). No significant differences between intervention and control groups were identified for social support, barriers to social participation, depressive symptoms, anxiety, life satisfaction, happiness and purpose in life	Volunteers received training on mental health, skills to offer peer support, how to deal with grief and loss, self-help skills, stress management, goal setting, and how to build healthy relationships. Although the volunteers were unable to provide professional intervention or therapy, they actively listened to and respected the needs of the older participants. During the matching process, there were considerations made regarding the gender, age, language and education background so that some form of commonalities were linked between the older person and the peer-supporters
Miller et al. (2020) Pilot randomised controlled trial (comparator: waiting list) Lebanon	To assess the feasibility, acceptability and perceived usefulness of the intervention	Caregiver support intervention focussed on caregiver wellbeing (e.g. stress management, relaxation), drawing from a culturally integrative approach. Non-mental health specialists (NR), social worker (1) 9 weeks	Community-based organisations 151 caregivers, 79 families	Arabic Syrian (87%), Palestinian (10%), Lebanese (3%) Refugees (97%)	Parenting: 24-item measure developed for the study to assess parent warmth, responsiveness and harsh parenting. Caregiver stress: 8-item scale developed for the study. Caregiver psychological well-being: Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS) Caregiver psychological distress: Kessler Psychological distress (K10) Stress management: 10-item scale developed for the study. Child psychological wellbeing-parent report: Kid-KINDL	There were significant changes in the hypothesized direction on all parent-reported outcomes in the intervention group, with all p < 0.01. There were no significant changes on any variable in the control group	Women’s groups were co-facilitated by female facilitators. Men’s groups were co-led by male facilitators
Oh and Ell (2018) Randomised controlled trial (comparator: usual care—patient-centred medical home—referrals, care management) United States	To examine whether changes in depressive symptoms and social support prospectively predicted diabetes management amongst Hispanic patients with probable depression in patient-centred medical homes at safety-net clinics	A Helping Hand (rapport building, problem-solving, education, self-care, community resource navigation, referrals to providers) Promotora (health worker) (NR) NR	In-person and phone meetings Adults with diabetes or diabetes and cardiovascular disease or heart failure (251)	NR Hispanic NR	Depressive symptoms: 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Perceived social support: 8-item Modified Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) Social Support Survey Adherence to self-care: MOS Specific Adherence Recommendations Self-efficacy related to diabetes: Self- Efficacy for Managing Chronic Disease scale	Changes in depressive symptoms at 6- and 12-month follow-ups predicted self-efficacy and adherence to diabetes management. Changes in total social support and emotional social support were correlated with self-efficacy regarding diabetes management only at 6-month follow-up
Poudel-Tandukar et al. (2022) Pre-post study United States	To assess the effect of a peer-led family-centred SEW intervention on preventive and mental health outcomes amongst resettled Bhutanese adults	Social and emotional wellbeing (SEW) intervention Community leaders (10) 5 weeks (90 min)	Community (home visits) Bhutanese adults (103) from 50 families	NR Bhutanese Refugees	Depression: Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) Anxiety: Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25), Perceived stress: Cohen Perceived Stress Scale (10-item version) Coping strategies: 32-item Coping Strategies Inventory-Short Form (CSI-SF) Social support: 12-item Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) Social networks: Lubben Social Network Scale-Revised (LSNS-R) Family conflict resolution: 17-item Family Conflict Resolution Scale (FCRS) Coping self-efficacy: 26-item coping self-efficacy (CSE)	Findings indicated a statistically significant reduction in stress, anxiety, depressive symptoms scores, and improved coping, coping self-efficacy and family and community networking scores from baseline to both follow-ups (7-day and 3-month post-intervention) (all p's < 0.01). No significant changes were identified for social support or family conflict resolution	Each week, each family was provided with a package of educational materials, including leaflets containing stress management tips, strategies for strengthening coping, communication, social networking skills and pictographs on breathing exercises and yoga
Ramirez et al. (2020) Randomised controlled trial (comparator: Patient navigation only (maximum of 6 phone calls to seek information about community services, printed materials) United states	To examine the effects of enhanced patient navigation (PN) through the PN-Livestrong Cancer Navigation Services (LCNS) programme (vs PN only) on both general and disease-specific health-related quality of life in Latinx breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer survivors after primary treatment completion	PN-LCNS (promotion of use of services, help to overcome barriers to using the programme, orient participants to the availability of community resources, assist with accessing and planning future medical appointments) Patient navigators (NR) 3 months	Phone or online-based one-on-one support Hispanic/Latinx cancer survivors (288)	Spanish or English and Spanish Hispanic/Latinx NR	Health-related quality of life (HRQOL): 27-item Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General (FACT-G) scale Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy: cancer-specific Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy symptom burden subscales	PN-LCNS demonstrated a significant improvement in HRQOL in comparison with PN only for colorectal cancer survivors (males—(β, 10.074; 95% CI, 2.030–18.119; p = 0.014), as measured by FACT-G at 6-month follow-up; females—(β, 0.168; 95% CI, 0.030–0.305; p = 0.017) as measured by at 6-month follow-up; but not for breast and prostate cancer survivors p = 0.013)	Greater baseline HRQOL was associated with a smaller change in HRQOL from the baseline (β, − 0.321; 95% CI, − 0.397 to − 0.244; p < 0.001)
Weinstein et al. (2021) Randomised controlled trial (comparator: clinic-based Asthma educator [AE-C]) United states	To examine how psychosocial factors impact on asthma response to community health workers (CHW) and AE-C, as well as the impact of the interventions on psychosocial factors	CHW (e.g. education, behaviour change plans, self-management skills) CHW (2), AE-C (1) 10 visits over 12 months in their home or preferred location (e.g. school, clinic)	Home visits Children and caregivers (223 dyads)	Spanish or English Hispanic NR	Asthma control: Asthma control test Parent mental health: 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire, 6-item Short Form of the PTSD Checklist—Civilian Version Child mental health: Children’s Depression Inventory 2, Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Depressive Symptoms Parent Proxy form, Child and Parent Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms, Traumatic Events Screening Inventory- Child Report Form Revised Family functioning: Chaos, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS)	Psychosocial outcomes did not vary by group, but parent depression, parent and child PTSD symptoms, and social support showed significant improvement for both groups. CHW intervention was more effective than AE-C for improving asthma control in presence of higher baseline parent depression and PTSD symptoms (average change estimate 7.49 points; 95% CI 5.93, 9.05) versus the AE-C group (average change of 4.76 points; 95% CI 2.90, 6.63)

^aWhere the authors presented results other than the effectiveness of interventions (e.g. demographic characteristics of the population, population needs), we have prioritised the results related to effectiveness or mediators of effectiveness and omitted other results.

CI confidence interval, NR not reported, PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder, QoL quality of life, PROMIS patient reported outcomes measurement information system, RCT randomised controlled trial, SD standard deviation