Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the study participants.
| Never or former smoker | Never or former smoker | Current smoker | Current smoker | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Regular exercise | Irregular exercise | Regular exercise | Irregular exercise | ||
| Group 1 (N = 335222) | Group 2 (N = 1120489) | Group 3 (N = 85793) | Group 4 (N = 379806) | ||
| Age, years | 60.14 ± 10.61 | 59.74 ± 11.85 | 53.12 ± 10.80 | 51.81 ± 10.63 | < 0.001 |
| Age groups | < 0.001 | ||||
| < 40 | 10,168 (3.03) | 50,374 (4.50) | 8868 (10.34) | 44,719 (11.77) | |
| 40–64 | 208,368 (62.16) | 684,597 (61.10) | 64,820 (75.55) | 293,442 (77.26) | |
| ≥ 65 | 116,686 (34.81) | 385,518 (34.41) | 12,105 (14.11) | 41,645 (10.96) | |
| Sex | < 0.001 | ||||
| Male | 200,415 (59.79) | 540,588 (48.25) | 82,081 (95.67) | 356,820 (93.95) | |
| Female | 134,807 (40.21) | 579,901 (51.75) | 3712 (4.33) | 22,986 (6.05) | |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 25.11 ± 3.27 | 25.49 ± 3.60 | 25.18 ± 3.48 | 25.35 ± 3.69 | < 0.001 |
| BMI | < 0.001 | ||||
| < 18.5 | 3221 (0.96) | 13,832 (1.23) | 1113 (1.30) | 6436 (1.69) | |
| 18.5–22.9 | 81,882 (24.43) | 250,266 (22.34) | 21,157 (24.66) | 90,540 (23.84) | |
| 23.0-24.9 | 87,476 (26.09) | 264,770 (23.63) | 21,644 (25.23) | 88,660 (23.34) | |
| 25.0-29.9 | 138,194 (41.22) | 475,922 (42.47) | 34,556 (40.28) | 155,071 (40.83) | |
| ≥ 30.0 | 24,449 (7.29) | 115,699 (10.33) | 7323 (8.54) | 39,099 (10.29) | |
| Waist circumference, cm | 85.06 ± 8.58 | 85.85 ± 9.14 | 86.60 ± 8.48 | 87.37 ± 8.93 | < 0.001 |
| SBP, mmHg | 128.52 ± 14.75 | 128.60 ± 15.09 | 127.46 ± 14.48 | 127.48 ± 14.73 | < 0.001 |
| DBP, mmHg | 77.80 ± 9.70 | 78.15 ± 9.91 | 78.89 ± 9.97 | 79.40 ± 10.15 | < 0.001 |
| Fasting glucose, mg/dL | 141.14 ± 40.23 | 144.65 ± 45.05 | 150.03 ± 48.20 | 155.09 ± 51.44 | < 0.001 |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 184.72 ± 42.04 | 188.52 ± 43.78 | 189.45 ± 43.13 | 193.35 ± 44.36 | < 0.001 |
| HDL-C, mg/dL | 52.63 ± 15.10 | 51.71 ± 14.74 | 50.19 ± 14.57 | 49.09 ± 14.91 | < 0.001 |
| LDL-C, mg/dL | 103.73 ± 37.21 | 106.21 ± 38.69 | 104.36 ± 38.42 | 106.63 ± 39.34 | < 0.001 |
| eGFR, mL/min/1.73 m2 | 89.14 ± 52.48 | 89.12 ± 48.60 | 95.51 ± 64.82 | 96.60 ± 64.94 | < 0.001 |
| Triglyceride, mg/dL | 124.38 (124.15-124.61) | 135.28 (135.14-135.42) | 156.30 (155.67-156.92) | 170.97 (170.64-171.29) | < 0.001 |
| Low income | 66,938 (19.97) | 245,621 (21.92) | 16,879 (19.67) | 79,926 (21.04) | < 0.001 |
| Hypertension | 186,513 (55.64) | 632,457 (56.44) | 40,560 (47.28) | 175,333 (46.16) | < 0.001 |
| Dyslipidemia | 187,469 (55.92) | 635,591 (56.72) | 40,330 (47.01) | 180,794 (47.60) | < 0.001 |
| CKD | 27,628 (8.24) | 103,676 (9.25) | 3663 (4.27) | 15,501 (4.08) | < 0.001 |
| Smoking | < 0.001 | ||||
| Never | 214,627 (64.03) | 812,517 (72.51) | – | – | |
| Former | 120,595 (35.97) | 307,972 (27.49) | – | – | |
| Current | – | – | 85,793 (100) | 379,806 (100) | |
| Alcohol consumption | < 0.001 | ||||
| None | 192,969 (57.56) | 722,972 (64.52) | 22,558 (26.29) | 101,661 (26.77) | |
| Mild | 117,003 (34.90) | 320,738 (28.62) | 46,720 (54.46) | 198,024 (52.14) | |
| Heavy | 20,344 (6.07) | 60,942 (5.44) | 13,005 (15.16) | 62,157 (16.37) | |
| Excessive | 4906 (1.46) | 15,837 (1.41) | 3510 (4.09) | 17,964 (4.73) | |
| Regular exercise | 335,222 (100) | – | 85,793 (100) | - | < 0.001 |
| CCI score, ≥5 | 53,406 (15.93) | 179,801 (6.05) | 8576 (10.00) | 35,190 (9.27) | < 0.001 |
| CCI score | 2.55 ± 2.00 | 2.52 ± 2.04 | 1.96 ± 1.86 | 1.84 ± 1.84 | < 0.001 |
| DM duration | < 0.001 | ||||
| New onset | 94,278 (28.12) | 336,855 (30.06) | 34,551 (40.27) | 167,361 (44.06) | |
| < 5 years | 88,972 (26.54) | 314,931 (28.11) | 21,985 (25.63) | 99,779 (26.27) | |
| 5–9 years | 66,867 (19.95) | 217,006 (19.37) | 14,449 (16.84) | 59,086 (15.56) | |
| ≥ 10 years | 85,105 (25.39) | 251,697 (22.46) | 14,808 (17.26) | 53,580 (14.11) | |
| OHA, ≥3 | 73,001 (21.78) | 251,144 (22.41) | 17,536 (20.44) | 77,412 (20.38) | < 0.001 |
| Metformin | 217,739 (64.95) | 711,870 (63.53) | 47,229 (55.05) | 197,526 (52.01) | < 0.001 |
| Sulfonylurea | 109,122 (32.55) | 368,810 (32.92) | 25,019 (29.16) | 105,976 (27.90) | < 0.001 |
| TZD | 24,145 (7.20) | 82,116 (7.33) | 5684 (6.63) | 24,313 (6.40) | < 0.001 |
| DPP-4 inhibitor | 134,201 (40.03) | 438,013 (39.09) | 30,219 (35.22) | 128,744 (33.90) | < 0.001 |
| Meglitinide | 1498 (0.45) | 4765 (0.43) | 257 (0.30) | 980 (0.26) | < 0.001 |
| SGLT-2 inhibitor | 8282 (2.47) | 30,173 (2.69) | 1847 (2.15) | 8649 (2.28) | < 0.001 |
| GLP-1 RA | 116 (0.03) | 466 (0.04) | 25 (0.03) | 95 (0.03) | < 0.001 |
| Insulin use | 22,908 (6.83) | 81,450 (7.27) | 4984 (5.81) | 21,281 (5.60) | < 0.001 |
| SLD group | < 0.001 | ||||
| No Steatosis | 155,140 (46.28) | 455,780 (40.68) | 25,509 (29.73) | 95,551 (25.16) | |
| MASLD | 154,380 (46.05) | 581,741 (51.92) | 44,450 (51.81) | 206,230 (54.30) | |
| MetALD | 14,686 (4.38) | 47,063 (4.20) | 9594 (11.18) | 48,086 (12.66) | |
| ALD | 11,016 (3.29) | 35,905 (3.20) | 6240 (7.27) | 29,939 (7.88) | |
Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or number (%).
ALD, alcohol-related liver disease; BMI, body mass index; CCI, Charlson Comorbidity Index; CKD, chronic kidney disease; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DM, diabetes mellitus; DPP-4, dipeptidyl peptidase-4; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; GLP-1 RA, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MASLD, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease; MetALD, metabolic dysfunction and alcohol-related steatotic liver disease; OHA, oral hypoglycemic agent; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SD, standard deviation; SGLT, sodium glucose co-transporter; SLD, steatotic liver disease; TZD, thiazolidinedione.