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. 2025 Aug 25;25:2915. doi: 10.1186/s12889-025-24010-6

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Interaction effects between meteorological variables on RV, AdV, and coinfection risk. Panels A-C show interaction surfaces for RV: (A) temperature × wind speed, (B) temperature × relative humidity, and (C) wind speed × relative humidity. Panels D-F show corresponding interactions for AdV, and panels G-I for coinfections. The color scale represents the predicted log-relative risk derived from tensor-product smooths in the GAM models. Significant interactions were identified between temperature and wind speed for RV (p < 0.005; panel A) and between temperature and relative humidity for AdV (p < 0.001; panel E). No statistically significant interactions were observed for coinfections (all p > 0.1). Full statistical details are provided in Supplementary Table S3