. 2025 Aug 25;23:49. doi: 10.1186/s12963-025-00402-z

Table 5.

CHAI scores and demographic/health-related variables

Variable	n (%)	Mean CHAI score (SD)^	p-value~	Effect size^#
Gender Female Male	297 (51.9) 275 (48.1)	78.6 (10.7) 77.1 (11.1)	0.113	0.133
Age <65 years old ≥65 years old	472 (82.5) 100 (17.5)	77.5 (10.4) 79.7 (12.9)	0.112	0.203
BMI Not overweight Overweight	193 (33.6) 379 (66.3)	77.4 (10.6) 78.1 (11.1)	0.515	0.058
Ethnicity Chinese Malay Indian or other ethnicity	395 (69.1) 97 (17.0) 80 (14.0)	77.4 (10.8) 78.0 (10.3) 80.1 (11.8)	0.116	0.008
Housing type public Private	445 (77.8%) 127(22.2%)	78.2 (11.2) 76.7 (9.8)	0.211	0.126
Monthly personal income* <$1,000 $1,000–7,000 ≥$7,000	164 (28.7) 304 (53.1) 104 (18.2)	79.8 (12.1) 77.4 (10.3) 76.0 (10.2)	0.013	0.015
Highest education level Secondary and below¹ Post-secondary/Diploma University graduate and above	129 (22.6) 230 (40.2) 213 (37.2)	79.8 (12.9) 78.7 (9.7) 75.7 (10.4)	< 0.001	0.024
Presence of chronic disease No Yes	261 (45.6) 311 (54.4)	76.7 (10.2) 78.8 (11.4)	0.017	0.200
Has diabetes No Yes	469 (82.0) 103 (18.0)	77.3 (10.8) 80.3 (11.3)	0.013	0.271
Has hypertension No Yes	415 (72.6) 157 (27.4)	77.3 (10.5) 79.3 (11.8)	0.056	0.180
Has hyperlipidemia No Yes	409 (71.5) 163 (28.5)	77.8 (10.8) 78.0 (11.3)	0.856	0.017
Has multi-morbidity (≥ 3 chronic conditions) No Yes	518 (90.6) 54 (9.4)	77.9 (10.7) 77.3 (12.7)	0.673	0.060
Self-rated general health^† Excellent/Very good Good/Fair/Poor	142 (24.8) 430 (75.2)	81.2 (9.7) 76.7 (11.1)	< 0.001	0.423

Variable

n (%)

Mean CHAI score (SD)^

p-value~

Effect size^#

Gender

Female

Male

297 (51.9)

275 (48.1)

78.6 (10.7)

77.1 (11.1)

0.113

0.133

Age

<65 years old

≥65 years old

472 (82.5)

100 (17.5)

77.5 (10.4)

79.7 (12.9)

0.112

0.203

BMI

Not overweight

Overweight

193 (33.6)

379 (66.3)

77.4 (10.6)

78.1 (11.1)

0.515

0.058

Ethnicity

Chinese

Malay

Indian or other ethnicity

395 (69.1)

97 (17.0)

80 (14.0)

77.4 (10.8)

78.0 (10.3)

80.1 (11.8)

0.116

0.008

Housing type public

Private

445 (77.8%)

127(22.2%)

78.2 (11.2)

76.7 (9.8)

0.211

0.126

Monthly personal income*

<$1,000

$1,000–7,000

≥$7,000

164 (28.7)

304 (53.1)

104 (18.2)

79.8 (12.1)

77.4 (10.3)

76.0 (10.2)

0.013

0.015

Highest education level

Secondary and below¹

Post-secondary/Diploma

University graduate and above

129 (22.6)

230 (40.2)

213 (37.2)

79.8 (12.9)

78.7 (9.7)

75.7 (10.4)

< 0.001

0.024

Presence of chronic disease

Yes

261 (45.6)

311 (54.4)

76.7 (10.2)

78.8 (11.4)

0.017

0.200

Has diabetes

Yes

469 (82.0)

103 (18.0)

77.3 (10.8)

80.3 (11.3)

0.013

0.271

Has hypertension

Yes

415 (72.6)

157 (27.4)

77.3 (10.5)

79.3 (11.8)

0.056

0.180

Has hyperlipidemia

Yes

409 (71.5)

163 (28.5)

77.8 (10.8)

78.0 (11.3)

0.856

0.017

Has multi-morbidity (≥ 3 chronic conditions)

Yes

518 (90.6)

54 (9.4)

77.9 (10.7)

77.3 (12.7)

0.673

0.060

Self-rated general health^†

Excellent/Very good

Good/Fair/Poor

142 (24.8)

430 (75.2)

81.2 (9.7)

76.7 (11.1)

< 0.001

0.423

^Transformed scores 0-100

~T-test and ANOVA as appropriate

#Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s D and Inline graphic for T-test and ANOVA respectively

*In Singapore dollars

1Secondary education level refers to completion of secondary school in Singapore, roughly equivalent to Grades 7–10 elsewhere

†SF-36 Item 1

Abbreviations: CHAI, Community Health Activation Index; SD, Standard Deviation; BMI, Body Mass Index

Bold values indicate a significant p ≤ 0.05