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. 2025 Aug 11;16:1614678. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2025.1614678

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Copyright © 2025 Zhu, Gong, Xu, Sun, Jiang, Qiu, Shi, Wu, Fei, Yuan, Luo, Li, Cao, Pan and Zhou.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Flowchart depicting patient selection process for a study. Starting with 234 eligible patients, inclusion criteria are outlined: no prior treatment before glioma diagnosis, possession of postoperative histopathological findings, and confirmation of grade 3 or 4 glioma. Exclusions are due to lack of histopathological reports (108), insufficient resolution (5), or missing longitudinal data (41). The total study population is 80, split into a training set of 56 and a testing set of 24. — Flow chat of patient selection.