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. 2025 Aug 11;7:1584173. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2025.1584173

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© 2025 da Costa, Martins, Ribeiro, García-de-Alcaraz and Batista.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Three forest plots depicting effect size (Cohen's d) for different volleyball actions: attack (counterattack), set (counterattack), dig, block, attack, set, serve reception, and serve. Panel (a) shows large differences with symbols indicating small to very large effect sizes. Panel (b) displays medium differences with small to large effect sizes. Panel (c) presents short differences with trivial to small effect sizes. Each action demonstrates varying impact levels across three comparisons. — Effect sizes for the differences in performance indicators between winners and losers across different set score differences. (a) Large set score difference; (b) medium set score difference; (c) short set score difference. Note: A value of d > 0 indicates an effect in favor of the winner, while d < 0 indicates an effect in favor of the loser. The symbols on the right represent the magnitude of the effect.