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. 2025 Aug 25;24:222. doi: 10.1186/s12943-025-02429-0

Table 3.

Clinical application of patient-derived cancer organoids from clinicaltrials.gov

NCT Number Status Cancer Type Stage of Cancer Phase Application Outcome Measurement Sample Size Start date
NCT06196554 Recruiting Gastric Cancer All stage NA Drug screening Sensitivity, Specificity, Consistency 40 2023-05-01
NCT06100003 Recruiting Gastric Cancer All stage Phase 1 Drug testing DFS, Sensitivity, Specificity 104 2023-10-18
NCT05442138 Unknown Gastric Cancer Early NA Drug testing ORR, TRG 54 2022-06-28
NCT05351398 Unknown Gastric Cancer Advanced NA Treatment comparison ORR, TRG, RR 54 2022-04-28
NCT05203549 Unknown Gastric Cancer All stage NA Treatment consistency observations PDCOs success rate, Correlation 250 2021-05-01
NCT06907342 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer Metastasis Phase 2 Drug testing PDCOs success rate, ORR, DCR, PFS, OS, DOR 148 2025-05-23
NCT06787625 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer

Primary/

Metastasis

NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate 10 2024-05-25
NCT06136949 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PFS, Correlation 150 2023-05-22
NCT06100016 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer All stage Phase 1 Drug testing PFS, Sensitivity, Specificity 105 2023-10-18
NCT05955196 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs success rate 115 2023-01-09
NCT05883683 Not yet recruiting Colorectal Cancer

Advanced/

Recurrent

NA

Drug testing/

Target prediction

Viability of PDCOs,

Correlation, Sensitivity

100 2024-10-01
NCT05832398 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer All stage NA Drug testing Correlation, PFS, OS 186 2023-05-01
NCT05725200 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer Metastasis Phase 2 Treatment consistency observations

ORR, PFS, DOR, OS,

Safety and tolerability

40 2022-09-27
NCT05401318 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs success rate, Sensitivity 40 2022-03-28
NCT05352165 Not yet recruiting Rectal Cancer Advanced NA Treatment comparison PCR, Complication, Recurrence, Metastasis 192 2023-01-01
NCT05304741 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer

Advanced/

Recurrent/

Metastasis

NA

PDCOs Establishment/

Drug screening

PFS, OS, Sensitivity, Specificity 30 2020-01-01
NCT05183425 Unknown Colorectal Cancer Metastasis NA Drug testing Correlation, PDCOs success rate 60 2022-01-01
NCT05038358 Recruiting Colorectal Cancer Primary NA Drug Resistance PDCOs success rate 60 2022-12-12
NCT04996355 Unknown Colorectal Cancer All stage NA Drug screening Accuracy, Specificity, Sensitivity 52 2021-05-31
NCT04906733 Unknown Colon Cancer All stage NA Treatment consistency observations Sensitivity, Correlation 80 2021-04-15
NCT04755907 Unknown Colorectal Cancer All stage NA Model comparison

PDCOs sensitivity,

Correlation, DFS

120 2021-03-01
NCT04371198 Completed Rectal Cancer All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate 20 2020-09-18
NCT03577808 Unknown Rectal Cancer All stage NA Drug/Irradiation testing Correlation, PDCOs success rate 80 2018-08-17
NCT07054086 Recruiting Esophageal Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs success rate, Correlation 30 2025-03-01
NCT03283527 Recruiting Esophageal Cancer All stage NA Drug/Irradiation testing

PDCOs success rate,

Sensitivity, PFS, OS

100 2017-12-01
NCT06929845 Recruiting Liver Cancer All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate, Correlation 150 2024-10-01
NCT06699524 Active Liver Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PFS 122 2022-09-20
NCT06355700 Recruiting Liver Cancer All stage NA PDCOs Establishment co-culture PDCOs success rate, Correlation 10 2023-06-15
NCT05932836 Active Liver Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs success rate, Accuracy 165 2023-03-01
NCT05913141 Recruiting Liver Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs/co-culture PDCOs success rate, ORR, PFS, RFS… 30 2023-06-22
NCT05644743 Not yet recruiting

Intrahepatic

Cholangiocarcinoma

All stage NA Treatment consistency observations

Correlation,

Drug resistance model

40 2022-12-09
NCT05634694 Unknown Cholangiocarcinoma All stage NA Treatment consistency observations PFS, Sensitivity 40 2022-11-30
NCT04561453 Completed Cholangiocarcinoma All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs success rate, Correlation 14 2020-07-08
NCT04072445 Completed Cholangiocarcinoma Advanced Phase 2 Drug resistance Correlation, Clinical Benefit 28 2019-10-18
NCT06813079 Not yet recruiting Pancreatic Ductal Carcinoma Advanced Phase 2 Drug testing

ORR, DCR, DOR, PFS,

OS, Side effects

25 2025-02-17
NCT06666803 Not yet recruiting Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate, Correlation 60 2024-10-31
NCT06615830 Not yet recruiting Pancreatic Cancer Metastasis Phase 2 Drug testing PDCOs sensitivity, PFS, Correlation 185 2024-09-27
NCT05927298 Recruiting Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate, Correlation, AI platform establishment 200 2023-03-06
NCT05351983 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA Drug screening PDCOs success rate, Safety, Contamination rates 50 2022-09-22
NCT05196334 Recruiting Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA Drug testing PDCOs response to therapy 88 2021-07-01
NCT04931394 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer All stage Phase 3 Drug testing

DFT, OS, DFS

PDCOs success rate, Correlation

200 2021-06-01
NCT04931381 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer Advanced Phase 3 Drug testing

DCR, PFS, OS,

PDCOs success rate, Correlation

100 2021-06-01
NCT04777604 Not yet recruiting Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA

Drug testing/

Prognosis

OS 300 2021-03-01
NCT04736043 Recruiting Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA

Drug testing/

Prognosis

OS 300 2021-01-31
NCT04469556 Active Pancreatic Cancer

Advanced/

Metastasis

Phase 2 Treatment comparison PFS, ORR, OS, Correlation 150 2020-10-14
NCT03990675 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate 50 2018-12-01
NCT03544255 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA Drug screening PDCOs success rate, Correlation 50 2018-05-01
NCT03500068 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer Metastasis NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate, Biomarkers 30 2017-09-04
NCT03140592 Unknown Pancreatic Cancer All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate 300 2015-01-14
NCT06519500 Recruiting Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate 40 2023-03-03
NCT06246630 Recruiting Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor Advanced NA Drug testing PDCOs success rate, ORR, PFS, OS, Correlation 20 2024-04-03
NCT04927611 Unknown Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate, TME 200 2021-06-06
NCT06332716 Recruiting Gastrointestinal Tumors All stage Phase 3 Drug testing PFS, OS 68 2022-08-26
NCT06077591 Recruiting

Liver Cancer/

Colorectal Cancer

Advanced/Inoperable Phase 3 Drug testing Tumor response, ORR, PFS, OS, PDCOs success rate 40 2024-10-18
NCT05842187 Unknown

Pancreatic Cancer/

Gastric Cancer

Metastasis NA Treatment consistency observations PFS, DCR 20 2023-03-03
NCT05652348 Recruiting

Gastric Cancer/

Colorectal Cancer

All stage NA Drug testing

Sensitivity,

DNA/RNA sequence

48 2022-12-08
NCT05384184 Completed

Liver Cancer/

Colorectal Cancer

Metastasis NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate, Correlation 48 2019-06-06
NCT04611035 Unknown Gastrointestinal Cancers All stage NA Drug screening PDCOs success rate, ORR 100 2020-01-20
NCT03429816 Completed

Gastric Cancer/

Esophageal Cancer

All stage NA Drug testing Correlation, Histological regression, PFS, OS 120 2018-04-15
NCT02436564 Unknown

Cholangiocarcinoma/

Liver Cancer/

Pancreatic Cancer

All stage NA PDCOs Establishment PDCOs success rate 75 2015-05-07

Note: Search strategy: A combined search was performed on the ClinicalTrials.gov platform by selecting the disease: Digestive cancer/tumor; and the term: organoids. “Digestive cancer” can be replaced with liver cancer, cholangiocarcinoma, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, intestinal cancer, esophageal cancer, and pancreatic cancer for comprehensive retrieval. After inclusion and exclusion based on relevance to this article, 60 clinical trials were included for analysis

PDCOs: Patient-derived cancer organoids. DFS: Disease-free survival. ORR: Objective response rate. TRG: Tumor regression grading. RR: Recurrence rate. DCR: Disease control rate. OS: Overall survival. DOR: Duration of Response. PFS: Progression-free survival. RFS: Recurrence-free survival. DFT: Disease free time. PCR: Pathologic complete response. TME: Tumor microenvironment