Table 2. A comparison of metal nanoparticles-based electrochemical biosensors for influenza virus detection.

Electrodesa	3D surface materialsb	3D surface materials immobilization method	Capture probes	Capture probe immobilization method	Analytes (influenza subtypes)	Detection methodsc	Limit of detection	Detection range	Reference
Carbon	AuNPs	Physical adsorption	Antibody	Chemical conjugation (glutaraldehyde)	H1N1	CV, DPV	0.25 pg mL−1	0.25–5 pg mL−1	24
Au disk	AuNPs	In situ synthesis	DNA	Thiol–Au reaction	Influenza B	DPV	86.4 amol L−1	1.0 fmol L−1–1.0 nmol L−1	95
PGE	AuNPs	Physical adsorption	DNA	Thol–Au reaction	Influenza B	CV, DPV	54 pM	—	96
Au	ZnO nanorods	In situ synthesis	Antibody	Electrostatic interaction	H1N1, H5N1, H7N9	Amperometry (I–t curve)	1 pg mL−1	1 pg mL−1–10 ng mL−1	97
Au	TiO2–adenine nanocomposites	Adsorption via Adenine–Au affinity	DNA	EDC/NHS reaction; van der Waals interaction	H1N1	CV, EIS, DPV	6.7 × 10−8 ng mL−1	3 × 10−8–3 × 10−3 ng mL−1	98
SPGE	TiO2–guanine nanocomposites	Adsorption via Guanine–Au affinity	DNA	Van der Waals interaction	H1N1	CV, EIS	0.00024 ng/6 μL	0.0002–20 ng/6 μL	99
Au	Porous AuNPs	Physical adsorption; electrostatic interaction	DNA	Thiol–Au reaction	H5N1	CV	1 pM	1 pM–1 μM	100
Carbon	Trans-dimensional NCGF	In situ synthesis	Antibody	EDC/NHS reaction	Influenza A virus	DPV	13.14 fg mL−1	100 fg mL−1–10 ng mL−1	101

^aPGE, printed gold electrode; SPGE, screen-printed gold electrode.

^bAuNP, gold nanoparticle; NCGF, nanocoral gold foam.

^cCV, cyclic voltammetry; DPV, differential pulse voltammetry; EIS, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.