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. 2025 Aug 11;16:1670478. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2025.1670478

Figure 3.

Diagram illustrating the immune response in an epithelium cell. A virus enters the cell, leading to RIG-I and MDA-5 activation, triggering RLR signaling. This results in the production of Type I IFNs and proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12). Immature dendritic cells (DCs) mature and interact with Naive T Cells via MHC and TCR. B Cells and Th1 Cells are depicted, highlighting antibody, IFN-I, and cytokine involvement.

Schematic diagram of how DIPs activate host immune defense. DVGs are present in DIPs. Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA-5) recognize copyback DVGs and then trigger the creation of interferons (IFNs) and other cytokines, which supports the activation of the innate immune response. These factors contribute to the maturation of dendritic cells, thus contributing to the adaptive immune response. Subsequently, DVGs can enhance the recognition between naive T cells and mature dendritic cells, promoting the cell-mediated immune process mediated by type I IFN signaling. This, in turn, stimulates B cells to produce corresponding antibodies, thereby exerting the function of humoral immunity.