Table 2. Electrochemical biosensors used in infectious disease detection, showing target biomarkers, sensing techniques, and detection limits across various diseases.

Disease	Target biomarker	Biosensor type/technique	Key features/detection limit	References
Sepsis	TNF-α, IL-6, miR-155; 16S rRNA gene fragments	Electrochemical biosensor; READ device; electrochemical genosensor	Early detection in LPS-induced murine models; portable READ device for inflammation biomarkers; specific bacterial detection	64 and 16
SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)	Spike protein, NP, antigens; spike-ACE2 complex	Electrochemical biosensor; immunosensor; READ platform; LSG/nanomaterial-based sensors	High sensitivity (96.04%) and specificity (87.75%); applicable to diverse clinical specimens	65, 66, 13, 16 and 67
Hepatitis C virus (HCV)	E2 envelope protein; viral RNA; HCV-specific antibodies	Molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) sensor; nucleic acid-based biosensors	Effective PoC testing	15
Malaria	Plasmodium falciparum lactate dehydrogenase (PfLDH); parasite markers (e.g., cryptosporidium, trypanosoma)	Magnetoimmunoassay with magnetic beads and paper microfluidic electrodes; aptamer-based biosensors	Rapid, quantitative whole blood diagnosis; aptamer specificity for parasite detection	68 and 12
Melioidosis	Capsular polysaccharide (CPS) of Burkholderia pseudomallei	Electrochemical immunosensor/eELISA; READ sensor	High CPS sensitivity in serum and urine; early onsite predictability	16
Human papillomavirus (HPV)	HPV-16 DNA	Super sandwich structured biosensor with gold electrodes; nucleic acid-based electrochemical platforms	Effective interference resistance in serum; early high-risk HPV detection	2 and 15
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)	HIV DNA	Flexible paper-based electrochemical sensor	Highlights PoC electrochemical detection	68
General bacterial & viral infections	16S rRNA; pathogens in wastewater	Carbon-stabilized porous silicon biosensor; electrochemical genosensor	Used for UTIs, bacteremia, and pathogen monitoring in wastewater	69 and 15