Table 4. Piezoelectric biosensors used in infectious disease detection, showing target biomarkers, sensing techniques, and detection limits across various diseases.

Disease	Target biomarker	Biosensor = type/technique	Key features/detection limit	References
Hepatitis B	HBV DNA	QCM with DNA probe, piezoelectric actuator with CRISPR-RPA system	Femtomolar-level sensitivity; reusable up to 5×, amplification-free detection via CRISPR integration	89, 90 and 91
Tularemia	Anti-Francisella antibodies	Gold electrode-based piezoelectricimmunosensor	Detects antibodies in <10 minutes	91
Salmonella spp.	Anti-Salmonella antibodies	QCM with antibody immobilization, proteus-adaptable piezoelectric sensors	Frequency shift sensitivity down to 20 Hz; 10 CFU mL−1 achieved within 3 hours	91 and 92
HIV	HIV-1 and HIV-2 antigens	Surface acoustic wave (SAW) piezoelectric biosensor	Detects 12 TCID50 for HIV-1 and 87 TCID50 for HIV-2; works in serum; portable PoC design	93 and 91
Dengue	NS1 antigen	QCM with bacterial cellulose nanocrystals,MEMS-based cantilever biosensor	Detection limitof 0.1 μg mL−1; rapid, label-freemulti-disease detection capability	94, 95 and 96
Tuberculosis	IS6110 gene, TB antigens, VOCs	QCM with DNA probe, gold nanoparticles, SPQCfor VOC detection	Detection: 30 CFU mL−1, sputum-compatible; VOC-based TB screening	95, 97 and 98
COVID-19	Spike protein antigens, respiratory rate	PVDF-based piezoelectric cantilever, mattress-integrated sensor,FFT and PSD signal analysis	Micro/nanogram detection; 75% sensitivity and 83% NPV for SIRS; point-of-care respiratory monitoring platform	99 and 100