| Real-time connectivity |
Easy integration with portable electronic devices and smartphone interfaces for real-time signal transmission and data sharing13
|
Lacks real-time connectivity although newer smartphone-based fluorescence and SPR sensors are emerging38
|
Can be integrated with MEMS or QCM setups, but less frequently used43
|
| Ease of specimen collection |
Ideal for minimally invasive fluids (such as blood, urine, or saliva) that require little pretreatment, particularly in disposable and paper-based formats103
|
Suitable for direct analysis of biological fluids especially in label-free SPR and interferometric formats52
|
Accepts complex fluids and is generally label-free62
|
| Affordability |
Installation of the device in outdoor environments is possible by low-cost production and cheap materials like screen-printed electrodes103
|
Generally, higher cost, but smartphone and paper-based platforms are lowering expenses.82,83
|
Uses costlier materials like quartz but MEMS-based formats are emerging46,62
|
| Sensitivity |
Nanomaterial-modified electrodes and signal amplification strategies leads to high sensitivity achieving picogram to femtomolar LOD13
|
High sensitivity, especially in SPR, LSPR and fluorescence-based platforms38
|
Sensitivity ranges from microgram to femtomolar depending on the system89,90
|
| Specificity |
Aptamers, enzymes, or antibodies that are specific to target analyte leads to high specificity13
|
High specificity via surface-bound antibodies, aptamers, or probes with controlled functionalization20
|
Uses antibody or DNA probes for good selectivity88,89
|
| User friendliness |
Understandable signal output using portable or smartphone-integrated readers, often aiming for “sample-in-answer-out” functionality, requires minimal training68
|
Often need complex optical setups, but recent advancements can simplify its operation20
|
Often requires calibration but can be designed for simple use43
|
| Rapid and robust |
Provides rapid outputs often within minutes and performance is stable under varying operating conditions68
|
Detection times typically range from 5–30 minutes84
|
Provides results in under 10 minutes and works well in harsh settings62
|
| Equipment-free |
Often works without large instruments, especially in outdoor environments13
|
Often requires optical detectors, but lateral flow and fiber-based platforms reduce equipment needs20
|
Often needs frequency counters but MEMS designs reduce this requirement46
|
| Deliverable to end users |
Highly deliverable for in situ diagnosis, mass screening and general health monitoring directly at the point-of-care13
|
New portable and smartphone-based optical sensors are easier to use, but older systems stay limited to labs82,83
|
Shows potential for wearables and field use but needs further development43
|
