Table 3 |.

Summary of in vitro material platforms with their compositions and mechanism of action

Selected in vitro platforms	Compositions of material	Material mechanism of action	Refs.
Natural materials
Collagen	Type I, III, IV and VI collagen	Recapitulate mechanical environments of the ECM, applied to generate in vitro models seeded with vascular cells to study disease mechanisms	171–173
Oxygen-controllable hydrogel	Gelatin-based hypoxia-controllable hydrogels	Emulate hypoxic environments and, co-jointly with matrix viscoelasticity, guide vasculogenesis	148–150
Responsive hydrogels	Col-MA and HA-MA	Hydrogel stiffening ‘on demand’ impacts endothelial cell behaviors, leading to compromised vascular networks.	9
Dynamic hydrogels	The imine and acylhydrazone bonds were cross-linked by aldehyde groups on multi-aldehyde-modified dextran (Dex-CHO) with the original amino groups and modified acylhydrazide groups on gelatin modified with adipic acid dihydrazide (Gtn-ADH), respectively.	Promote rapid endothelial cell contractility-mediated integrin clustering, leading to activation of focal adhesion kinases and matrix remodeling promoting vasculogenesis/angiogenesis	105
Fibrin		Provide permissive environments for endothelial and mesenchymal progenitor cells to form neovascular networks	171
Elastin		Elastin, along with collagen, are the most abundant ECM proteins in the arterial wall.	174,175
Synthetic materials
Nanofiber–hydrogel composite	Free radical copolymerization of acrylic acid, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and acrylic acid N -hydroxysuccinimide ester	Injectable, fill the volume lost in soft tissue defects while promoting early angiogenesis by improving cell migration	158,159,161
Dual-cross-linkable alginate hydrogel	Oxidation and methacrylation of alginates	In situ stiffening of hydrogels decreases human mesenchymal stem cell and human adipose tissue-derived stromal cell spreading and proliferation, and subsequent softening of hydrogels gives way to an increase in cell spreading and proliferation.	162
Polyurethane	Poly(carbonate urethane) and poly(ether urethane)	Support long-term attachment, proliferation and differentiation of vascular cells in 3D bioreactor-based culture conditions	176,177
Electrospun nanofiber	Poly(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) copolymer	Mimic the nanoscale dimension of native ECM; mechanical properties of this structure are comparable to those of the human coronary artery.	178